1
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Zhao N, Pessell AF, Zhu N, Searson PC. Tissue-Engineered Microvessels: A Review of Current Engineering Strategies and Applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2303419. [PMID: 38686434 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202303419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Microvessels, including arterioles, capillaries, and venules, play an important role in regulating blood flow, enabling nutrient and waste exchange, and facilitating immune surveillance. Due to their important roles in maintaining normal function in human tissues, a substantial effort has been devoted to developing tissue-engineered models to study endothelium-related biology and pathology. Various engineering strategies have been developed to recapitulate the structural, cellular, and molecular hallmarks of native human microvessels in vitro. In this review, recent progress in engineering approaches, key components, and culture platforms for tissue-engineered human microvessel models is summarized. Then, tissue-specific models, and the major applications of tissue-engineered microvessels in development, disease modeling, drug screening and delivery, and vascularization in tissue engineering, are reviewed. Finally, future research directions for the field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Zhao
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Alexander F Pessell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Ninghao Zhu
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Peter C Searson
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
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2
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Fritschen A, Lindner N, Scholpp S, Richthof P, Dietz J, Linke P, Guttenberg Z, Blaeser A. High-Scale 3D-Bioprinting Platform for the Automated Production of Vascularized Organs-on-a-Chip. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2304028. [PMID: 38511587 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202304028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
3D bioprinting possesses the potential to revolutionize contemporary methodologies for fabricating tissue models employed in pharmaceutical research and experimental investigations. This is enhanced by combining bioprinting with advanced organs-on-a-chip (OOCs), which includes a complex arrangement of multiple cell types representing organ-specific cells, connective tissue, and vasculature. However, both OOCs and bioprinting so far demand a high degree of manual intervention, thereby impeding efficiency and inhibiting scalability to meet technological requirements. Through the combination of drop-on-demand bioprinting with robotic handling of microfluidic chips, a print procedure is achieved that is proficient in managing three distinct tissue models on a chip within only a minute, as well as capable of consecutively processing numerous OOCs without manual intervention. This process rests upon the development of a post-printing sealable microfluidic chip, that is compatible with different types of 3D-bioprinters and easily connected to a perfusion system. The capabilities of the automized bioprint process are showcased through the creation of a multicellular and vascularized liver carcinoma model on the chip. The process achieves full vascularization and stable microvascular network formation over 14 days of culture time, with pronounced spheroidal cell growth and albumin secretion of HepG2 serving as a representative cell model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Fritschen
- BioMedical Printing Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Nils Lindner
- BioMedical Printing Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Sebastian Scholpp
- BioMedical Printing Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Philipp Richthof
- BioMedical Printing Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Jonas Dietz
- BioMedical Printing Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Philipp Linke
- ibidi GmbH, Lochhamer Schlag 11, 82166, Gräfelfing, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Blaeser
- BioMedical Printing Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289, Darmstadt, Germany
- Centre for Synthetic Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, 64289, Darmstadt, Germany
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3
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Zhang Y, Wang Y, Yin H, Wang J, Liu N, Zhong S, Li L, Zhang Q, Yue T. Strain sensor on a chip for quantifying the magnitudes of tensile stress on cells. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2024; 10:88. [PMID: 38919164 PMCID: PMC11196625 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-024-00719-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
During cardiac development, mechanotransduction from the in vivo microenvironment modulates cardiomyocyte growth in terms of the number, area, and arrangement heterogeneity. However, the response of cells to different degrees of mechanical stimuli is unclear. Organ-on-a-chip, as a platform for investigating mechanical stress stimuli in cellular mimicry of the in vivo microenvironment, is limited by the lack of ability to accurately quantify externally induced stimuli. However, previous technology lacks the integration of external stimuli and feedback sensors in microfluidic platforms to obtain and apply precise amounts of external stimuli. Here, we designed a cell stretching platform with an in-situ sensor. The in-situ liquid metal sensors can accurately measure the mechanical stimulation caused by the deformation of the vacuum cavity exerted on cells. The platform was applied to human cardiomyocytes (AC16) under cyclic strain (5%, 10%, 15%, 20 and 25%), and we found that cyclic strain promoted cell growth induced the arrangement of cells on the membrane to gradually unify, and stabilized the cells at 15% amplitude, which was even more effective after 3 days of culture. The platform's precise control and measurement of mechanical forces can be used to establish more accurate in vitro microenvironmental models for disease modeling and therapeutic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyin Zhang
- School of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yue Wang
- School of Future Technology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology of Zhejiang Province, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hongze Yin
- School of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiahao Wang
- School of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Na Liu
- School of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing and Robotics, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Intelligent Science and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Songyi Zhong
- School of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- School of Future Technology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Long Li
- School of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing and Robotics, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Quan Zhang
- School of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- School of Future Technology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing and Robotics, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tao Yue
- School of Mechatronics Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- School of Future Technology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing and Robotics, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Intelligent Science and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
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4
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Lim J, Fang HW, Bupphathong S, Sung PC, Yeh CE, Huang W, Lin CH. The Edifice of Vasculature-On-Chips: A Focused Review on the Key Elements and Assembly of Angiogenesis Models. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2024; 10:3548-3567. [PMID: 38712543 PMCID: PMC11167599 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c01978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
The conception of vascularized organ-on-a-chip models provides researchers with the ability to supply controlled biological and physical cues that simulate the in vivo dynamic microphysiological environment of native blood vessels. The intention of this niche research area is to improve our understanding of the role of the vasculature in health or disease progression in vitro by allowing researchers to monitor angiogenic responses and cell-cell or cell-matrix interactions in real time. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the essential elements, including cells, biomaterials, microenvironmental factors, microfluidic chip design, and standard validation procedures that currently govern angiogenesis-on-a-chip assemblies. In addition, we emphasize the importance of incorporating a microvasculature component into organ-on-chip devices in critical biomedical research areas, such as tissue engineering, drug discovery, and disease modeling. Ultimately, advances in this area of research could provide innovative solutions and a personalized approach to ongoing medical challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Lim
- Graduate
Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Biomedical
Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Hsu-Wei Fang
- High-value
Biomaterials Research and Commercialization Center, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan
- Institute
of Biomedical Engineering and Nanomedicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan
| | - Sasinan Bupphathong
- Graduate
Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Biomedical
Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
- High-value
Biomaterials Research and Commercialization Center, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan
| | - Po-Chan Sung
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Chen-En Yeh
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Wei Huang
- Department
of Orthodontics, Rutgers School of Dental
Medicine, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - Chih-Hsin Lin
- Graduate
Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Biomedical
Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 11031, Taiwan
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5
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Xu W, Atik AY, Beker L, Ceylan Koydemir H. Digital monitoring of the microchannel filling flow dynamics using a non-contactless smartphone-based nano-liter precision flow velocity meter. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 252:116130. [PMID: 38417285 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2024.116130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Microfluidic systems find widespread applications in diagnostics, biological research, chemistry, and engineering studies. Among their many critical parameters, flow rate plays a pivotal role in maintaining the functionality of microfluidic systems, including droplet-based microfluidic devices and those used in cell culture. It also significantly influences microfluidic mixing processes. Although various flow rate measurement devices have been developed, the challenge remains in accurately measuring flow rates within customized channels. This paper presents the development of a 3D-printed smartphone-based flow velocity meter. The 3D-printed platform is angled at 30° to achieve transparent flow visualization, and it doesn't require any external optical components such as external lenses and filters. Two LED modules integrated into the platform create a uniform illumination environment for video capture, powered directly by the smartphone. The performance of our platform, combined with a customized video processing algorithm, was assessed in three different channel types: uniform straight channels, straight channels with varying widths, and vessel-like channel patterns to demonstrate its versatility. Our device effectively measured flow velocities from 5.43 mm/s to 24.47 mm/s, with video quality at 1080p resolution and 60 frames per second, for which the measurement range can be extended by adjusting the frame rate. This flow velocity meter can be a useful analytical tool to evaluate and enhance microfluidic channel designs of various lab-on-a-chip applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiming Xu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA; Center for Remote Health Technologies and Systems, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Abdulkadir Yasin Atik
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Koç University, Sariyer, Istanbul, 34450, Turkey
| | - Levent Beker
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Koç University, Sariyer, Istanbul, 34450, Turkey
| | - Hatice Ceylan Koydemir
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA; Center for Remote Health Technologies and Systems, Texas A&M Engineering Experiment Station, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
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6
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Yu T, Yang Q, Peng B, Gu Z, Zhu D. Vascularized organoid-on-a-chip: design, imaging, and analysis. Angiogenesis 2024; 27:147-172. [PMID: 38409567 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-024-09905-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Vascularized organoid-on-a-chip (VOoC) models achieve substance exchange in deep layers of organoids and provide a more physiologically relevant system in vitro. Common designs for VOoC primarily involve two categories: self-assembly of endothelial cells (ECs) to form microvessels and pre-patterned vessel lumens, both of which include the hydrogel region for EC growth and allow for controlled fluid perfusion on the chip. Characterizing the vasculature of VOoC often relies on high-resolution microscopic imaging. However, the high scattering of turbid tissues can limit optical imaging depth. To overcome this limitation, tissue optical clearing (TOC) techniques have emerged, allowing for 3D visualization of VOoC in conjunction with optical imaging techniques. The acquisition of large-scale imaging data, coupled with high-resolution imaging in whole-mount preparations, necessitates the development of highly efficient analysis methods. In this review, we provide an overview of the chip designs and culturing strategies employed for VOoC, as well as the applicable optical imaging and TOC methods. Furthermore, we summarize the vascular analysis techniques employed in VOoC, including deep learning. Finally, we discuss the existing challenges in VOoC and vascular analysis methods and provide an outlook for future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Yu
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics - MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China
- Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics - Advanced Biomedical Imaging Facility, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China
| | - Qihang Yang
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics - MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China
- Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics - Advanced Biomedical Imaging Facility, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China
| | - Bo Peng
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shanxi, 710072, China
| | - Zhongze Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210096, China
- Institute of Biomaterials and Medical Devices, Southeast University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215163, China
| | - Dan Zhu
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics - MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China.
- Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics - Advanced Biomedical Imaging Facility, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China.
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7
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Li H, Shang Y, Zeng J, Matsusaki M. Technology for the formation of engineered microvascular network models and their biomedical applications. NANO CONVERGENCE 2024; 11:10. [PMID: 38430377 PMCID: PMC10908775 DOI: 10.1186/s40580-024-00416-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine have made great progress in recent decades, as the fields of bioengineering, materials science, and stem cell biology have converged, allowing tissue engineers to replicate the structure and function of various levels of the vascular tree. Nonetheless, the lack of a fully functional vascular system to efficiently supply oxygen and nutrients has hindered the clinical application of bioengineered tissues for transplantation. To investigate vascular biology, drug transport, disease progression, and vascularization of engineered tissues for regenerative medicine, we have analyzed different approaches for designing microvascular networks to create models. This review discusses recent advances in the field of microvascular tissue engineering, explores potential future challenges, and offers methodological recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Li
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Yucheng Shang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Jinfeng Zeng
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Michiya Matsusaki
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
- Joint Research Laboratory (TOPPAN) for Advanced Cell Regulatory Chemistry, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan.
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8
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Huang S, Wu J, Zheng L, Long Y, Chen J, Li J, Dai B, Lin F, Zhuang S, Zhang D. 3D free-assembly modular microfluidics inspired by movable type printing. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2023; 9:111. [PMID: 37705925 PMCID: PMC10495351 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-023-00585-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Reconfigurable modular microfluidics presents an opportunity for flexibly constructing prototypes of advanced microfluidic systems. Nevertheless, the strategy of directly integrating modules cannot easily fulfill the requirements of common applications, e.g., the incorporation of materials with biochemical compatibility and optical transparency and the execution of small batch production of disposable chips for laboratory trials and initial tests. Here, we propose a manufacturing scheme inspired by the movable type printing technique to realize 3D free-assembly modular microfluidics. Double-layer 3D microfluidic structures can be produced by replicating the assembled molds. A library of modularized molds is presented for flow control, droplet generation and manipulation and cell trapping and coculture. In addition, a variety of modularized attachments, including valves, light sources and microscopic cameras, have been developed with the capability to be mounted onto chips on demand. Microfluidic systems, including those for concentration gradient generation, droplet-based microfluidics, cell trapping and drug screening, are demonstrated. This scheme enables rapid prototyping of microfluidic systems and construction of on-chip research platforms, with the intent of achieving high efficiency of proof-of-concept tests and small batch manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoqi Huang
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Jiandong Wu
- Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055 China
| | - Lulu Zheng
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Yan Long
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Junyi Chen
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Jianlang Li
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Bo Dai
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Francis Lin
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2 Canada
| | - Songlin Zhuang
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
| | - Dawei Zhang
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200093 China
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9
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Wu CA, Zhu Y, Venkatesh A, Stark CJ, Lee SH, Woo YJ. Optimization of Freeform Reversible Embedding of Suspended Hydrogel Microspheres for Substantially Improved Three-Dimensional Bioprinting Capabilities. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2023; 29:85-94. [PMID: 36719778 PMCID: PMC10024587 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2022.0214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting demonstrates technology that is capable of producing structures comparable to native tissues in the human body. The freeform reversible embedding of suspended hydrogels (FRESH) technique involves hydrogel-based bio-inks printed within a thermo-reversible support bath to provide mechanical strength to the printed construct. Smaller and more uniform microsphere sizes of FRESH were reported to aid in enhancing printing resolution and construct accuracy. Therefore, we sought to optimize the FRESH generation protocol, particularly by varying stir speed and stir duration, in hopes to further improve microsphere size and uniformity. We observed optimal conditions at a stir speed of 600 rpm and stir duration for 20 h that generated the smallest microspheres with the best uniformity. Comparison of using the optimized FRESH to the commercial FRESH LifeSupport to bioprint single filament and geometrical constructs revealed reduced single filament diameters and higher angular precision in the optimized FRESH bio-printed constructs compared with those printed in the commercial FRESH. Overall, our refinement of the FRESH manufacturing protocol represents an important step toward enhancing 3D bioprinting resolution and construct fidelity. Improving such technologies allows for the fabrication of highly accurate constructs with anatomical properties similar to native counterparts. Such work has significant implications in the field of tissue engineering for producing accurate human organ model systems. Impact statement Freeform reversible embedding of suspended hydrogels (FRESH) is a method of sacrificial three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting that offers support to reinforce bio-ink extrusion during printing. During FRESH generation, the stir speed and stir duration of the mixture can significantly impact FRESH microsphere characteristics. In this study, we optimized FRESH microspheres to significantly improve resolution and accuracy in bioprinting. This advancement in FRESH-based 3D bioprinting technologies allows for the fabrication of highly accurate constructs with anatomical properties similar to native counterparts and has significant implications in the field of tissue engineering and translational medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A. Wu
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Yuanjia Zhu
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Akshay Venkatesh
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Charles J. Stark
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Seung Hyun Lee
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Y. Joseph Woo
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery and Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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10
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Chen J, Huang S, Long Y, Wang K, Guan Y, Hou L, Dai B, Zhuang S, Zhang D. A 3D-Printed Standardized Modular Microfluidic System for Droplet Generation. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:1085. [PMID: 36551052 PMCID: PMC9775649 DOI: 10.3390/bios12121085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Droplet-based microfluidics has a variety of applications, such as material synthesis and single-cell analysis. In this paper, we propose a modular microfluidic system using projection micro-stereolithography three-dimensional (3D) printing technology for droplet generation. All modules are designed using a standard cubic structure with a specific leakage-free connection interface. Versatile droplets, including single droplets, alternating droplets, merged droplets, and Janus particles, have been successfully produced. The droplet size and the generation rate can be flexibly controlled by adjusting the flow rates. The influence of the flow rate fraction between the discrete phase and the continuous phase over the generation of the alternating and merged droplets is discussed. Furthermore, the 'UV curing' module can be employed to solidify the generated droplets to avoid coalescence and fix the status of the Janus particles. The proposed modular droplet generators are promising candidates for various chemical and biological applications, such as single-cell incubation, screening of protein crystallization conditions, synthesis of nanoparticles, and gene delivery. In addition, we envision that more functional modules, e.g., valve, microreactor, and detection modules, could be developed, and the 3D standardized modular microfluidics could be further applied to other complex systems, i.e., concentration gradient generators and clinical diagnostic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyi Chen
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Shaoqi Huang
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Yan Long
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Kan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine Shanghai Jiaotong University, No. 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Yangtai Guan
- Department of Neurology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine Shanghai Jiaotong University, No. 160 Pujian Rd., Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Lianping Hou
- James Watt School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Bo Dai
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Songlin Zhuang
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Dawei Zhang
- Engineering Research Center of Optical Instrument and System, the Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Optical System, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
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11
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Wang R, Zhang C, Li D, Yao Y. Tumor-on-a-chip: Perfusable vascular incorporation brings new approach to tumor metastasis research and drug development. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:1057913. [PMID: 36483772 PMCID: PMC9722735 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1057913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The extracellular matrix interacts with cancer cells and is a key factor in the development of cancer. Traditional two-dimensional models cannot mimic the natural in situ environment of cancer tissues, whereas three-dimensional (3D) models such as spherical culture, bioprinting, and microfluidic approaches can achieve in vitro reproduction of certain structures and components of the tumor microenvironment, including simulation of the hypoxic environment of tumor tissue. However, the lack of a perfusable vascular network is a limitation of most 3D models. Solid tumor growth and metastasis require angiogenesis, and tumor models with microvascular networks have been developed to better understand underlying mechanisms. Tumor-on-a-chip technology combines the advantages of microfluidics and 3D cell culture technology for the simulation of tumor tissue complexity and characteristics. In this review, we summarize progress in constructing tumor-on-a-chip models with efficiently perfused vascular networks. We also discuss the applications of tumor-on-a-chip technology to studying the tumor microenvironment and drug development. Finally, we describe the creation of several common tumor models based on this technology to provide a deeper understanding and new insights into the design of vascularized cancer models. We believe that the tumor-on-a-chip approach is an important development that will provide further contributions to the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Danxue Li
- *Correspondence: Danxue Li, ; Yang Yao,
| | - Yang Yao
- *Correspondence: Danxue Li, ; Yang Yao,
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Park J, Kim S, Hong J, Jeon JS. Enabling perfusion through multicellular tumor spheroids promoting lumenization in a vascularized cancer model. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:4335-4348. [PMID: 36226506 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00597b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A tumor is composed of heterogeneous cell population, which is known as tumor stroma. In particular, blood vessels have an indispensable role in the tumor microenvironment acting as a key player in anti-cancer drug delivery. Recently, efforts have been made to accurately recapitulate the microenvironment by employing distinct cell types, however, the proper formation of perfusable tumor tissue is challenging. Here, perfusable tumor tissue is engineered by implanting multicellular tumor spheroids inside the microfluidic devices. Blood perfusion, spheroid growth, and vascular dynamics were monitored according to the spheroid composition and the contribution of internal and external vascular cells to spheroid perfusion was analyzed. Most notably, the increased penetration depth of fluorescence conjugated anti-cancer drug was observed in tri-culture spheroids. The implementation of tumor microenvironment reconstruction developed in this study not only creates a perfusable tumor vascular model but can also be utilized as a novel drug screening platform with patient-derived samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joonha Park
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon 34141, Korea.
| | - Seunggyu Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon 34141, Korea.
| | - Jiman Hong
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon 34141, Korea.
| | - Jessie S Jeon
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon 34141, Korea.
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13
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Van Trigt WK, Kelly KM, Hughes CCW. GNAQ mutations drive port wine birthmark-associated Sturge-Weber syndrome: A review of pathobiology, therapies, and current models. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:1006027. [PMID: 36405075 PMCID: PMC9670321 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.1006027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Port-wine birthmarks (PWBs) are caused by somatic, mosaic mutations in the G protein guanine nucleotide binding protein alpha subunit q (GNAQ) and are characterized by the formation of dilated, dysfunctional blood vessels in the dermis, eyes, and/or brain. Cutaneous PWBs can be treated by current dermatologic therapy, like laser intervention, to lighten the lesions and diminish nodules that occur in the lesion. Involvement of the eyes and/or brain can result in serious complications and this variation is termed Sturge-Weber syndrome (SWS). Some of the biggest hurdles preventing development of new therapeutics are unanswered questions regarding disease biology and lack of models for drug screening. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of GNAQ signaling, the standard of care for patients, overlap with other GNAQ-associated or phenotypically similar diseases, as well as deficiencies in current in vivo and in vitro vascular malformation models.
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Affiliation(s)
- William K. Van Trigt
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States,*Correspondence: William K. Van Trigt,
| | - Kristen M. Kelly
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Christopher C. W. Hughes
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States,Christopher C. W. Hughes,
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14
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Lam J, Lee B, Yu J, Kwee BJ, Kim Y, Kim J, Choi Y, Yoon JS, Kim Y, Baek K, Jeon NL, Sung KE. A microphysiological system-based potency bioassay for the functional quality assessment of mesenchymal stromal cells targeting vasculogenesis. Biomaterials 2022; 290:121826. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Abstract
The next robotics frontier will be led by biohybrids. Capable biohybrid robots require microfluidics to sustain, improve, and scale the architectural complexity of their core ingredient: biological tissues. Advances in microfluidics have already revolutionized disease modeling and drug development, and are positioned to impact regenerative medicine but have yet to apply to biohybrids. Fusing microfluidics with living materials will improve tissue perfusion and maturation, and enable precise patterning of sensing, processing, and control elements. This perspective suggests future developments in advanced biohybrids.
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Lai X, Yang M, Wu H, Li D. Modular Microfluidics: Current Status and Future Prospects. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:1363. [PMID: 36014285 PMCID: PMC9414757 DOI: 10.3390/mi13081363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This review mainly studies the development status, limitations, and future directions of modular microfluidic systems. Microfluidic technology is an important tool platform for scientific research and plays an important role in various fields. With the continuous development of microfluidic applications, conventional monolithic microfluidic chips show more and more limitations. A modular microfluidic system is a system composed of interconnected, independent modular microfluidic chips, which are easy to use, highly customizable, and on-site deployable. In this paper, the current forms of modular microfluidic systems are classified and studied. The popular fabrication techniques for modular blocks, the major application scenarios of modular microfluidics, and the limitations of modular techniques are also discussed. Lastly, this review provides prospects for the future direction of modular microfluidic technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochen Lai
- School of Automation, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Mingpeng Yang
- School of Automation, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Hao Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology and Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Dachao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology and Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
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Laschke MW, Gu Y, Menger MD. Replacement in angiogenesis research: Studying mechanisms of blood vessel development by animal-free in vitro, in vivo and in silico approaches. Front Physiol 2022; 13:981161. [PMID: 36060683 PMCID: PMC9428454 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.981161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis, the development of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones, is an essential process determining numerous physiological and pathological conditions. Accordingly, there is a high demand for research approaches allowing the investigation of angiogenic mechanisms and the assessment of pro- and anti-angiogenic therapeutics. The present review provides a selective overview and critical discussion of such approaches, which, in line with the 3R principle, all share the common feature that they are not based on animal experiments. They include in vitro assays to study the viability, proliferation, migration, tube formation and sprouting activity of endothelial cells in two- and three-dimensional environments, the degradation of extracellular matrix compounds as well as the impact of hemodynamic forces on blood vessel formation. These assays can be complemented by in vivo analyses of microvascular network formation in the chorioallantoic membrane assay and early stages of zebrafish larvae. In addition, the combination of experimental data and physical laws enables the mathematical modeling of tissue-specific vascularization, blood flow patterns, interstitial fluid flow as well as oxygen, nutrient and drug distribution. All these animal-free approaches markedly contribute to an improved understanding of fundamental biological mechanisms underlying angiogenesis. Hence, they do not only represent essential tools in basic science but also in early stages of drug development. Moreover, their advancement bears the great potential to analyze angiogenesis in all its complexity and, thus, to make animal experiments superfluous in the future.
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Emerging Microfluidic and Biosensor Technologies for Improved Cancer Theranostics. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2022; 1379:461-495. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-04039-9_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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O’Connor C, Brady E, Zheng Y, Moore E, Stevens KR. Engineering the multiscale complexity of vascular networks. NATURE REVIEWS. MATERIALS 2022; 7:702-716. [PMID: 35669037 PMCID: PMC9154041 DOI: 10.1038/s41578-022-00447-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The survival of vertebrate organisms depends on highly regulated delivery of oxygen and nutrients through vascular networks that pervade nearly all tissues in the body. Dysregulation of these vascular networks is implicated in many common human diseases such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, diabetes and cancer. Therefore, engineers have sought to create vascular networks within engineered tissues for applications such as regenerative therapies, human disease modelling and pharmacological testing. Yet engineering vascular networks has historically remained difficult, owing to both incomplete understanding of vascular structure and technical limitations for vascular fabrication. This Review highlights the materials advances that have enabled transformative progress in vascular engineering by ushering in new tools for both visualizing and building vasculature. New methods such as bioprinting, organoids and microfluidic systems are discussed, which have enabled the fabrication of 3D vascular topologies at a cellular scale with lumen perfusion. These approaches to vascular engineering are categorized into technology-driven and nature-driven approaches. Finally, the remaining knowledge gaps, emerging frontiers and opportunities for this field are highlighted, including the steps required to replicate the multiscale complexity of vascular networks found in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen O’Connor
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Eileen Brady
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Ying Zheng
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA USA
- Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Erika Moore
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL USA
| | - Kelly R. Stevens
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA USA
- Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Brotman Baty Institute, Seattle, WA USA
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Mohan MD, Young EWK. TANDEM: biomicrofluidic systems with transverse and normal diffusional environments for multidirectional signaling. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:4081-4094. [PMID: 34604885 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00279a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Biomicrofluidic systems that can recapitulate complex biological processes with precisely controlled 3D geometries are a significant advancement from traditional 2D cultures. To this point, these systems have largely been limited to either laterally adjacent channels in a single plane or vertically stacked single-channel arrangements. As a result, lateral (or transverse) and vertical (or normal) diffusion have been isolated to their respective designs only, thus limiting potential access to nutrients and 3D communication that typifies in vivo microenvironments. Here we report a novel device architecture called "TANDEM", an acronym for "T̲ransverse A̲nd N̲ormal D̲iffusional E̲nvironments for M̲ultidirectional Signaling", which enables multiplanar arrangements of aligned channels where normal and transverse diffusion occur in tandem to facilitate multidirectional communication. We developed a computational transport model in COMSOL and tested diffusion and culture viability in one specific TANDEM configuration, and found that TANDEM systems demonstrated enhanced diffusion in comparison to single-plane counterparts. This resulted in improved viability of hydrogel-embedded cells, which typically suffer from a lack of sufficient nutrient access during long-term culture. Finally, we showed that TANDEM designs can be expanded to more complex alternative configurations depending on the needs of the end-user. Based on these findings, TANDEM designs can utilize multidirectional enhanced diffusion to improve long-term viability and ultimately facilitate more robust and more biomimetic microfluidic systems with increasingly more complex geometric layouts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Mohan
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G8, Canada
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Edmond W K Young
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G8, Canada
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 3G9, Canada
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21
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Ewald ML, Chen YH, Lee AP, Hughes CCW. The vascular niche in next generation microphysiological systems. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:3244-3262. [PMID: 34396383 PMCID: PMC8635227 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc00530h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, microphysiological system (MPS, also known as, organ-on-a-chip or tissue chip) platforms have emerged with great promise to improve the predictive capacity of preclinical modeling thereby reducing the high attrition rates when drugs move into trials. While their designs can vary quite significantly, in general MPS are bioengineered in vitro microenvironments that recapitulate key functional units of human organs, and that have broad applications in human physiology, pathophysiology, and clinical pharmacology. A critical next step in the evolution of MPS devices is the widespread incorporation of functional vasculature within tissues. The vasculature itself is a major organ that carries nutrients, immune cells, signaling molecules and therapeutics to all other organs. It also plays critical roles in inducing and maintaining tissue identity through expression of angiocrine factors, and in providing tissue-specific milieus (i.e., the vascular niche) that can support the survival and function of stem cells. Thus, organs are patterned, maintained and supported by the vasculature, which in turn receives signals that drive tissue specific gene expression. In this review, we will discuss published vascularized MPS platforms and present considerations for next-generation devices looking to incorporate this critical constituent. Finally, we will highlight the organ-patterning processes governed by the vasculature, and how the incorporation of a vascular niche within MPS platforms will establish a unique opportunity to study stem cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makena L Ewald
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
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22
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Liu X, Yue T, Kojima M, Huang Q, Arai T. Bio-assembling and Bioprinting for Engineering Microvessels from the Bottom Up. Int J Bioprint 2021; 7:366. [PMID: 34286151 PMCID: PMC8287491 DOI: 10.18063/ijb.v7i3.366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood vessels are essential in transporting nutrients, oxygen, metabolic wastes, and maintaining the homeostasis of the whole human body. Mass of engineered microvessels is required to deliver nutrients to the cells included in the constructed large three-dimensional (3D) functional tissues by diffusion. It is a formidable challenge to regenerate microvessels and build a microvascular network, mimicking the cellular viabilities and activities in the engineered organs with traditional or existing manufacturing techniques. Modular tissue engineering adopting the "bottom-up" approach builds one-dimensional (1D) or two-dimensional (2D) modular tissues in micro scale first and then uses these modules as building blocks to generate large tissues and organs with complex but indispensable microstructural features. Building the microvascular network utilizing this approach could be appropriate and adequate. In this review, we introduced existing methods using the "bottom-up" concept developed to fabricate microvessels including bio-assembling powered by different micromanipulation techniques and bioprinting utilizing varied solidification mechanisms. We compared and discussed the features of the artificial microvessels engineered by these two strategies from multiple aspects. Regarding the future development of engineering the microvessels from the bottom up, potential directions were also concluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems, Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Decision of Complex System, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, and School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Tao Yue
- School of Mechatronic Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
- Shanghai Institute of Intelligent Science and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Masaru Kojima
- Department of Materials Engineering Science, Osaka University, Osaka 5608531, Japan
| | - Qiang Huang
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems, Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Decision of Complex System, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, and School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Tatsuo Arai
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems, Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Decision of Complex System, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems, and School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Center for Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, the University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo 1828585, Japan
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