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Ye X, Li Z, Ye S, Liang X, Bao C, He M, Wang H, Xia L, Cao X. Accurate identification of 8-oxoguanine in RNA with single-nucleotide resolution using ligase-dependent qPCR. Org Biomol Chem 2024; 22:5629-5635. [PMID: 38912549 DOI: 10.1039/d4ob00786g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
8-oxoguanine (o8G), a prevalent oxidative modification in RNA induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS), plays a pivotal role in regulating RNA functions. Accurate detection and quantification of o8G modifications is critical to understanding their biological significance and potential as disease biomarkers, but effective detection methods remain limited. Here, we have developed a highly specific T3 DNA ligase-dependent qPCR assay that exploits the enzyme's ability to discriminate o8G from guanine (G) with single-nucleotide resolution. This method can detect o8G in RNA at levels as low as 500 fM, with an up to 18-fold higher selectivity for discriminating o8G from G. By simulating oxidative stress conditions in SH-SY5Y and HS683 cell lines treated with rotenone, we successfully identified site-specific o8G modifications in key miRNAs associated with neuroprotective responses, including miR-124, let-7a and miR-29a. The developed assay holds significant promise for the practical identification of o8G, facilitating its potential for detailed studies of o8G dynamics in various biological contexts and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xidong Ye
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Zengguang Li
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Shangde Ye
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Xinqi Liang
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Chenyu Bao
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Mingyang He
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Hailan Wang
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Laixin Xia
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Xin Cao
- Department of Developmental Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
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2
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Nongthombam PD, Haobam R. Targeting phosphodiesterase 4 as a potential therapy for Parkinson's disease: a review. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:510. [PMID: 38622307 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-024-09484-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) have become a promising therapeutic target for various disorders. PDEs are a vast and diversified family of enzymes that degrade cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), which have several biochemical and physiological functions. Phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) is the most abundant PDE in the central nervous system (CNS) and is extensively expressed in the mammalian brain, where it catalyzes the hydrolysis of intracellular cAMP. An alteration in the balance of PDE4 and cAMP results in the dysregulation of different biological mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative diseases. By inhibiting PDE4 with drugs, the levels of cAMP inside the cells could be stabilized, which may improve the symptoms of mental and neurological disorders such as memory loss, depression, and Parkinson's disease (PD). Though numerous studies have shown that phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors (PDE4Is) are beneficial in PD, there are presently no approved PDE4I drugs for PD. This review presents an overview of PDE4Is and their effects on PD, their possible underlying mechanism in the restoration/protection of dopaminergic cell death, which holds promise for developing PDE4Is as a treatment strategy for PD. Methods on how these drugs could be effectively delivered to develop as a promising treatment for PD have been suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reena Haobam
- Department of Biotechnology, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal, 795003, India.
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3
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Farid HA, Sayed RH, El-Shamarka MES, Abdel-Salam OME, El Sayed NS. PI3K/AKT signaling activation by roflumilast ameliorates rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease in rats. Inflammopharmacology 2024; 32:1421-1437. [PMID: 37541971 PMCID: PMC11006765 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-023-01305-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common progressive age-related neurodegenerative disorder. Paramount evidence shed light on the role of PI3K/AKT signaling activation in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. PI3K/AKT signaling can be activated via cAMP-dependent pathways achieved by phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibition. Roflumilast is a well-known PDE4 inhibitor that is currently used in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Furthermore, roflumilast has been proposed as a favorable candidate for the treatment of neurological disorders. The current study aimed to unravel the neuroprotective role of roflumilast in the rotenone model of PD in rats. Ninety male rats were allocated into six groups as follows: control, rotenone (1.5 mg/kg/48 h, s.c.), L-dopa (22.5 mg/kg, p.o), and roflumilast (0.2, 0.4 or 0.8 mg/kg, p.o). All treatments were administrated for 21 days 1 h after rotenone injection. Rats treated with roflumilast showed an improvement in motor activity and coordination as well as preservation of dopaminergic neurons in the striatum. Moreover, roflumilast increased cAMP level and activated the PI3K/AKT axis via stimulation of CREB/BDNF/TrkB and SIRT1/PTP1B/IGF1 signaling cascades. Roflumilast also caused an upsurge in mTOR and Nrf2, halted GSK-3β and NF-ĸB, and suppressed FoxO1 and caspase-3. Our study revealed that roflumilast exerted neuroprotective effects in rotenone-induced neurotoxicity in rats. These neuroprotective effects were mediated via the crosstalk between CREB/BDNF/TrkB and SIRT1/PTP1B/IGF1 signaling pathways which activates PI3K/AKT trajectory. Therefore, PDE4 inhibition is likely to offer a reliable persuasive avenue in curing PD via PI3K/AKT signaling activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba A Farid
- Department of Narcotics, Ergogenic Aids and Poisons, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Rabab H Sayed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El Aini St., Cairo, 11562, Egypt.
| | | | - Omar M E Abdel-Salam
- Department of Narcotics, Ergogenic Aids and Poisons, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Nesrine S El Sayed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El Aini St., Cairo, 11562, Egypt
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4
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Huo D, Liang W, Wang D, Liu Q, Wang H, Wang Y, Zhang C, Cong C, Su X, Tan X, Zhang W, Han L, Zhang D, Wang M, Feng H. Roflupram alleviates autophagy defects and reduces mutant hSOD1-induced motor neuron damage in cell and mouse models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neuropharmacology 2024; 247:109812. [PMID: 38218579 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal and incurable disease involving motor neuron (MN) degeneration and is characterized by ongoing myasthenia and amyotrophia in adults. Most ALS patients die of respiratory muscle paralysis after an average of 3-5 years. Defective autophagy in MNs is considered an important trigger of ALS pathogenesis. Roflupram (ROF) was demonstrated to activate autophagy in microglial cells and exert protective effects against Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, our research aimed to investigate the efficacy and mechanism of ROF in treating ALS both in vivo and in vitro. We found that ROF could delay disease onset and prolong the survival of hSOD1-G93A transgenic mice. Moreover, ROF protected MNs in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, activated the AMPK/ULK1 signaling pathway, increased autophagic flow, and reduced SOD1 aggregation. In an NSC34 cell line stably transfected with hSOD1-G93A, ROF protected against cellular damage caused by hSOD1-G93A. Moreover, we have demonstrated that ROF inhibited gliosis in ALS model mice. Collectively, our study suggested that ROF is neuroprotective in ALS models and the AMPK/ULK1 signaling pathway is a potential therapeutic target in ALS, which increases autophagic flow and reduces SOD1 aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Huo
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Weiwei Liang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Di Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Qiaochu Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Hongyong Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Chunting Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Science and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei City, Anhui Province, PR China
| | - Chaohua Cong
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai No. 9 People's Hospital, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Xiaoli Su
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Xingli Tan
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Wenmo Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Ling Han
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Dongmei Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Ming Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China
| | - Honglin Feng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, PR China.
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5
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Li F, Wu C, Wang G. Targeting NAD Metabolism for the Therapy of Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases. Neurosci Bull 2024; 40:218-240. [PMID: 37253984 PMCID: PMC10838897 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-023-01072-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
As the aging population continues to grow rapidly, age-related diseases are becoming an increasing burden on the healthcare system and a major concern for the well-being of elderly individuals. While aging is an inevitable process for all humans, it can be slowed down and age-related diseases can be treated or alleviated. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a critical coenzyme or cofactor that plays a central role in metabolism and is involved in various cellular processes including the maintenance of metabolic homeostasis, post-translational protein modifications, DNA repair, and immune responses. As individuals age, their NAD levels decline, and this decrease has been suggested to be a contributing factor to the development of numerous age-related diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. In pursuit of healthy aging, researchers have investigated approaches to boost or maintain NAD levels. Here, we provide an overview of NAD metabolism and the role of NAD in age-related diseases and summarize recent progress in the development of strategies that target NAD metabolism for the treatment of age-related diseases, particularly neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Chou Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Gelin Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
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Yuan Y, Ma X, Mi X, Qu L, Liang M, Li M, Wang Y, Song N, Xie J. Dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra is associated with olfactory dysfunction in mice models of Parkinson's disease. Cell Death Discov 2023; 9:388. [PMID: 37865662 PMCID: PMC10590405 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-023-01684-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Olfactory dysfunction represents a prodromal stage in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the mechanisms underlying hyposmia are not specified yet. In this study, we first observed an early olfactory dysfunction in mice with intragastric rotenone administration, consistent with dopaminergic neurons loss and α-synuclein pathology in the olfactory bulb. However, a much severer olfactory dysfunction was observed without severer pathology in olfactory bulb when the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra occurred. Then, we established the mice models by intrastriatal α-synuclein preformed fibrils injection and demonstrated the performance in the olfactory discrimination test was correlated to the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, without any changes in the olfactory bulb analyzed by RNA-sequence. In mice with intranasal ferric ammonium citrate administration, we observed olfactory dysfunction when dopaminergic neurodegeneration in substantia nigra occurred and was restored when dopaminergic neurons were rescued. Finally we demonstrated that chemogenetic inhibition of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra was sufficient to cause hyposmia and motor incoordination. Taken together, this study shows a direct relationship between nigral dopaminergic neurodegeneration and olfactory dysfunction in PD models and put forward the understandings that olfactory dysfunction represents the early stage of neurodegeneration in PD progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Yuan
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
- Lingang Laboratory, Shanghai, 200031, China
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Xizhen Ma
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Xiaoqing Mi
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Le Qu
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Meiyu Liang
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Mengyu Li
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Youcui Wang
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Ning Song
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Junxia Xie
- Institute of Brain Science and Disease, School of Basic Medicine, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
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7
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Roy D, Balasubramanian S, Krishnamurthy PT, Sola P, Rymbai E. Phosphodiesterase-4 Inhibition in Parkinson's Disease: Molecular Insights and Therapeutic Potential. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2023:10.1007/s10571-023-01349-1. [PMID: 37074485 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-023-01349-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
Clinicians and researchers are exploring safer and novel treatment strategies for treating the ever-prevalent Parkinson's disease (PD) across the globe. Several therapeutic strategies are used clinically for PD, including dopamine replacement therapy, DA agonists, MAO-B blockers, COMT blockers, and anticholinergics. Surgical interventions such as pallidotomy, particularly deep brain stimulation (DBS), are also employed. However, they only provide temporal and symptomatic relief. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is one of the secondary messengers involved in dopaminergic neurotransmission. Phosphodiesterase (PDE) regulates cAMP and cGMP intracellular levels. PDE enzymes are subdivided into families and subtypes which are expressed throughout the human body. PDE4 isoenzyme- PDE4B subtype is overexpressed in the substantia nigra of the brain. Various studies have implicated multiple cAMP-mediated signaling cascades in PD, and PDE4 is a common link that can emerge as a neuroprotective and/or disease-modifying target. Furthermore, a mechanistic understanding of the PDE4 subtypes has provided perceptivity into the molecular mechanisms underlying the adverse effects of phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors (PDE4Is). The repositioning and development of efficacious PDE4Is for PD have gained much attention. This review critically assesses the existing literature on PDE4 and its expression. Specifically, this review provides insights into the interrelated neurological cAMP-mediated signaling cascades involving PDE4s and the potential role of PDE4Is in PD. In addition, we discuss existing challenges and possible strategies for overcoming them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhritiman Roy
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, The Nilgiris, Ooty, 643001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Shivaramakrishnan Balasubramanian
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, The Nilgiris, Ooty, 643001, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Praveen Thaggikuppe Krishnamurthy
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, The Nilgiris, Ooty, 643001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Piyong Sola
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, The Nilgiris, Ooty, 643001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Emdormi Rymbai
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, The Nilgiris, Ooty, 643001, Tamil Nadu, India
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8
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Zhang S, Zhao J, Quan Z, Li H, Qing H. Mitochondria and Other Organelles in Neural Development and Their Potential as Therapeutic Targets in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:853911. [PMID: 35450015 PMCID: PMC9016280 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.853911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of organelles to neural development has received increasing attention. Studies have shown that organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, and endosomes play important roles in neurogenesis. Specifically, metabolic switching, reactive oxygen species production, mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy, mitochondria-mediated apoptosis, and the interaction between mitochondria and the ER all have roles in neurogenesis. Lysosomes and endosomes can regulate neurite growth and extension. Moreover, metabolic reprogramming represents a novel strategy for generating functional neurons. Accordingly, the exploration and application of mechanisms underlying metabolic reprogramming will be beneficial for neural conversion and regenerative medicine. There is adequate evidence implicating the dysfunction of cellular organelles—especially mitochondria—in neurodegenerative disorders, and that improvement of mitochondrial function may reverse the progression of these diseases through the reinforcement of adult neurogenesis. Therefore, these organelles have potential as therapeutic targets for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we discuss the function of these organelles, especially mitochondria, in neural development, focusing on their potential as therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyuan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Juan Zhao
- Aerospace Medical Center, Aerospace Center Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenzhen Quan
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Hui Li,
| | - Hong Qing
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
- Hong Qing,
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