IL-10 in glioma

Antitumoral Activity of Cecropia Pachystachya Leaves Extract in Vitro and in Vivo Model of Rat Glioma: Brain and Blood Effects

The aim of this study was to investigate the antiglioma effect of Cecropia pachystachya Trécul (CEC) leaves extract against C6 and U87 glioblastoma (GB) cells and in a rat preclinical GB model. The CEC extract reduced in vitro cell viability and biomass. In vivo, the extract decreased the tumor volume approximately 62%, without inducing systemic toxicity. The deficit in locomotion and memory and an anxiolytic-like behaviors induced in the GB model were minimized by CEC. The extract decreased the levels of reactive oxygen species, nitrites and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes in platelets, sera and brains of GB animals. The activity of NTPDases, 5'-nucleotidase and adenosine deaminase (ADA) was evaluated in lymphocytes, platelets and serum. In platelets, ATP and AMP hydrolysis was reduced and hydrolysis of ADP and the activity of ADA were increased in the control, while in CEC-treated animals no alteration in the hydrolysis of ADP was detected. In serum, the reduction in ATP hydrolysis was reversed by CEC. In lymphocytes, the increase in the hydrolysis of ATP, ADP and in the activity of ADA observed in GB model was altered by CEC administration. The observed increase in IL-6 and decrease in IL-10 levels in the serum of GB animals was reversed by CEC. These results demonstrate that CEC extract is a potential complementary treatment to GB, decreasing the tumor size, while modulating aspects of redox and purinergic systems.

Lipid-Conjugated Reduced Haloperidol in Association with Glucose-Based Nanospheres: A Strategy for Glioma Treatment

Aggressive glioma exhibits a poor survival rate. Increased tumor aggression is linked to both tumor cells and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), which induce pro-aggression, invasion, and metastasis. Imperatively, for effective treatment, it is important to target both glioma cells and TAMs. Haloperidol, a neuropsychotic drug, avidly targets the sigma receptor (SR), which is expressed in higher levels in both the cell types. Herein, we present the development of a novel cationic lipid-conjugated reduced haloperidol (±RHPC8), which aims to mediate the SR-targeted antiglioma effect. Hypothetically, ±RHPC8 would act simultaneously as an SR-targeting ligand and anticancer agent. As the blood-brain barrier (BBB) obstructs direct targeting of in situ glioma, we used BBB-crossing glucose-based carbon nanospheres (CSPs) to deliver ±RHPC8 within the glioma tumor-bearing mouse brain. The resultant ±RHPC8-CSP nanoconjugate targeted SR-expressing glioma cells. In both orthotopic and subcutaneous mouse tumor models, ±RHPC8-CSP prolonged survival and regressed tumors compared to other treated groups. Notably, ±RHPC8-CSP was significantly taken up by SR-expressing TAMs thus resulting in macrophage polarization from M2 to M1, as exhibited by markedly reduced expression of immunosuppressive cytokines released by TAMs, including TGF-β, IL-10, and VEGF. In conclusion, the designed ±RHPC8-CSP nanoconjugate presented an effective nanodrug delivery system for brain cancer treatment.

Rewiring the T cell-suppressive cytokine landscape of the tumor microenvironment: a new frontier for precision anti-cancer therapy

T lymphocytes that infiltrate the tumor microenvironment (TME) often fail to function as effective anti-cancer agents. Within the TME, cell-to-cell inhibitory interactions play significant roles in dampening their anti-tumor activities. Recent studies have revealed that soluble factors released in the TME by immune and non-immune cells, as well as by tumor cells themselves, contribute to the exacerbation of T cell exhaustion. Our understanding of the cytokine landscape of the TME, their interrelationships, and their impact on cancer development is still at its early stages. In this review, we aim to shed light on Interleukin (IL) -6, IL-9, and IL-10, a small group of JAK/STAT signaling-dependent cytokines harboring T cell-suppressive effects in the TME and summarize their mechanisms of action. Additionally, we will explore how advancements in scientific research can help us overcoming the obstacles posed by cytokines that suppress T cells in tumors, with the ultimate objective of stimulating further investigations for the development of novel therapeutic strategies to counteract their tumor-promoting activities.

Integrated bioinformatics analysis and experimental validation reveal the relationship between ALOX5AP and the prognosis and immune microenvironment in glioma

BACKGROUND

Treatment of gliomas, the most prevalent primary malignant neoplasm of the central nervous system, is challenging. Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase activating protein (ALOX5AP) is crucial for converting arachidonic acid into leukotrienes and is associated with poor prognosis in multiple cancers. Nevertheless, its relationship with the prognosis and the immune microenvironment of gliomas remains incompletely understood.

METHODS

The differential expression of ALOX5AP was evaluated based on public Databases. Kaplan-Meier, multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression analysis, time-dependent receiver operating characteristic, and nomogram were used to estimate the prognostic value of ALOX5AP. The relationship between ALOX5AP and immune infiltration was calculated using ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithms. Relationships between ALOX5AP and human leukocyte antigen molecules, immune checkpoints, tumor mutation burden, TIDE score, and immunophenoscore were calculated to evaluate glioma immunotherapy response. Single gene GSEA and co-expression network-based GO and KEGG enrichment analysis were performed to explore the potential function of ALOX5AP. ALOX5AP expression was verified using multiplex immunofluorescence staining and its prognostic effects were confirmed using a glioma tissue microarray.

RESULT

ALOX5AP was highly expressed in gliomas, and the expression level was related to World Health Organization (WHO) grade, age, sex, IDH mutation status, 1p19q co-deletion status, MGMTp methylation status, and poor prognosis. Single-cell RNA sequencing showed that ALOX5AP was expressed in macrophages, monocytes, and T cells but not in tumor cells. ALOX5AP expression positively correlated with M2 macrophage infiltration and poor immunotherapy response. Immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that ALOX5AP was upregulated in WHO higher-grade gliomas, localizing to M2 macrophages. Glioma tissue microarray confirmed the adverse effect of ALOX5AP in the prognosis of glioma.

CONCLUSION

ALOX5AP is highly expressed in M2 macrophages and may act as a potential biomarker for predicting prognosis and immunotherapy response in patients with glioma.

GPR65 contributes to constructing immunosuppressive microenvironment in glioma

Glioma, especially glioblastoma patients, present highly heterogeneous and immunosuppressive microenvironment, leading to their poor response to treatment and survival. Targeting the tumor microenvironment is considered a promising therapeutic strategy. M2 macrophages are highly infiltrated in glioma tissue, even up to 50% of the total number of bulk tissue cells. Here, we identified GPR65 as the hub gene of the M2 macrophage-related module in glioma through WGCNA analysis. The expression and prognosis analysis suggested that GPR65 was positively correlated with the malignancy and poor prognosis of glioma, and the heterogeneity analysis found that GPR65 was highly expressed in the vascular proliferation area of glioma, which matched the spatial expression characteristics of M2 macrophages. We further verified that GPR65 was highly expressed in macrophages but not tumor cells in the glioma microenvironment by single-cell data analysis and immunofluorescence. Most importantly, we found that inhibition of GPR65 was sufficient to reduce macrophages' polarization response to glioma cell and break the malignant cooperation with glioma cells. Our study reports the expression characteristics and malignant behavior of GPR65 in the glioma microenvironment, which provides a new alternative target of treatment to glioma microenvironment.

Research hotspots and trend of glioblastoma immunotherapy: a bibliometric and visual analysis

Background

Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the common malignant tumors of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by rapid proliferation, heterogeneity, aggressiveness, proneness to recurrence after surgery, and poor prognosis. There is increasing evidence that tumorigenesis is inextricably linked to immune escape, and immunotherapy is undoubtedly an important complement to clinical treatment options for GBM, and will be a focus and hot topic in GBM treatment research. The purpose of this study was to visualize and analyze the scientific results and research trends of immunotherapy for GBM.

Methods

Publications concerning immunotherapy for GBM were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection (WOScc) database. Bibliometric and visual analysis was performed mainly using CiteSpace and R software, and the Online Analysis Platform of Literature Metrology (https://bibliometric.com/app) for countries/regions, authors, journals, references and keywords related to publications in the field.

Results

Among totally 3491 publications retrieved in this field, 1613 publications were finally obtained according to the screening criteria, including 1007 articles (62.43%) and 606 reviews (37.57%). The number of publications increased year by year, with an average growth rate (AGR) of 17.41%. Such a number was the largest in the USA (717, 44.45%), followed by China (283, 17.55%), and the USA showed the strongest international collaboration. Among the research institutions, Duke Univ (94, 5.83%) was the largest publisher in the field, followed by Harvard Med Sch (70, 4.34%). In addition, the most prolific authors in this field were OHN H SAMPSON (51) and MICHAEL LIM (43), and the degree of collaboration (DC) between authors was 98.26%. Among the co-cited authors, STUPP R (805) was the most cited author, followed by REARDON DA (448). The journal with the most published publications was FRONTIERS IN IMMUNOLOGY (75), and the most cited journal in terms of co-citation was CLIN CANCER RES (1322), followed by CANCER RES (1230). The high-frequency keyword included glioblastoma (672) and immunotherapy (377). Cluster analysis was performed on the basis of keyword co-occurrence analysis, yielding 17 clusters, based on which the current research status and future trends in the field of immunotherapy for GBM were identified.

Conclusion

Immunotherapy is currently a novel treatment strategy for GBM that has attracted much attention. In the future, it is necessary to strengthen cooperation and exchanges between countries and institutions towards relevant research to promote the development of this field. Immunotherapy is expected to be an important part of the future treatment strategy for GBM, and it has already become a hot spot of current research and will be the key focus of future research.

Brain gliomas: Diagnostic and therapeutic issues and the prospects of drug-targeted nano-delivery technology

Glioma is the most common intracranial malignant tumor, with severe difficulty in treatment and a low patient survival rate. Due to the heterogeneity and invasiveness of tumors, lack of personalized clinical treatment design, and physiological barriers, it is often difficult to accurately distinguish gliomas, which dramatically affects the subsequent diagnosis, imaging treatment, and prognosis. Fortunately, nano-delivery systems have demonstrated unprecedented capabilities in diagnosing and treating gliomas in recent years. They have been modified and surface modified to efficiently traverse BBB/BBTB, target lesion sites, and intelligently release therapeutic or contrast agents, thereby achieving precise imaging and treatment. In this review, we focus on nano-delivery systems. Firstly, we provide an overview of the standard and emerging diagnostic and treatment technologies for glioma in clinical practice. After induction and analysis, we focus on summarizing the delivery methods of drug delivery systems, the design of nanoparticles, and their new advances in glioma imaging and treatment in recent years. Finally, we discussed the prospects and potential challenges of drug-delivery systems in diagnosing and treating glioma.

The prognostic relevance of a gene expression signature in MRI-defined highly vascularized glioblastoma

Background

The vascular heterogeneity of glioblastomas (GB) remains an important area of research, since tumor progression and patient prognosis are closely tied to this feature. With this study, we aim to identify gene expression profiles associated with MRI-defined tumor vascularity and to investigate its relationship with patient prognosis.

Methods

The study employed MRI parameters calculated with DSC Perfusion Quantification of ONCOhabitats glioma analysis software and RNA-seq data from the TCGA-GBM project dataset. In our study, we had a total of 147 RNA-seq samples, which 15 of them also had MRI parameter information. We analyzed the gene expression profiles associated with MRI-defined tumor vascularity using differential gene expression analysis and performed Log-rank tests to assess the correlation between the identified genes and patient prognosis.

Results

The findings of our research reveal a set of 21 overexpressed genes associated with the high vascularity pattern. Notably, several of these overexpressed genes have been previously implicated in worse prognosis based on existing literature. Our log-rank test further validates that the collective upregulation of these genes is indeed correlated with an unfavorable prognosis. This set of genes includes a variety of molecules, such as cytokines, receptors, ligands, and other molecules with diverse functions.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that the set of 21 overexpressed genes in the High Vascularity group could potentially serve as prognostic markers for GB patients. These results highlight the importance of further investigating the relationship between the molecules such as cytokines or receptors underlying the vascularity in GB and its observation through MRI and developing targeted therapies for this aggressive disease.

Interleukin-10 induces TNF-driven apoptosis and ROS production in salivary gland cancer cells

Treatment resistance after chemo-/immunotherapy occurs in patients with head and neck squamous cell cancers (HNSCs), including salivary gland cancers (SGCs). Interleukin-10 (IL-10), a cytokine with pro- and anti-cancer effects, has an unclear impact on HNSC/SGC cells. We show that HNSC patients exhibiting high expression of IL-10 and its receptor IL-10Rα experience have prolonged overall survival. Immunoreactive IL-10 was low in ductal cells of human SGC biopsies. Human (A253) and murine WR21-SGC cells expressed IL-10Rβ, but only A253 cells expressed IL-10 and IL-10Rα. The addition of recombinant IL-10 impaired SGC cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in vitro. N-acetylcysteine restored IL-10-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production but did not prevent IL-10-mediated viability loss. Mechanistically, recIL-10 delayed cell cycle progression from G0/G1 to the S phase with cyclin D downregulation and upregulation of NF-kB. IL-10 increased tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in A253 and WR21 and FasL in WR21 cells. Neutralizing antibodies against TNF-α and NF-kB inhibition restored SGC proliferation after IL-10 treatment, emphasizing the critical role of TNF-α and NF-kB in IL-10-mediated anti-tumor effects. These findings underscore the potential of IL-10 to impede SGC cell growth through apoptosis induction, unraveling potential therapeutic targets for intervention in salivary gland carcinomas.

Radiation-primed TGF-β trapping by engineered extracellular vesicles for targeted glioblastoma therapy

The poor outcome of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) treated with immunotherapy is attributed to the profound immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and the lack of effective delivery across the blood-brain barrier. Radiation therapy (RT) induces an immunogenic antitumor response that is counteracted by evasive mechanisms, among which transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) activation is the most prominent factor. We report an extracellular vesicle (EV)-based nanotherapeutic that traps TGF-β by expressing the extracellular domain of the TGF-β type II receptor and targets GBM by decorating the EV surface with RGD peptide. We show that short-burst radiation dramatically enhanced the targeting efficiency of RGD peptide-conjugated EVs to GBM, while the displayed TGF-β trap reversed radiation-stimulated TGF-β activation in the TME, offering a synergistic effect in the murine GBM model. The combined therapy significantly increased CD8+ cytotoxic T cells infiltration and M1/M2 macrophage ratio, resulting in the regression of tumor growth and prolongation of overall survival. These results provide an EV-based therapeutic strategy for immune remodeling of the GBM TME and eradication of therapy-resistant tumors, further supporting its clinical translation.

Upregulation of HLA-II related to LAG-3+CD4+ T cell infiltration is associated with patient outcome in human glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant diffuse glioma of the brain. Although immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), such as programmed cell death protein (PD)-1/PD ligand-1 inhibitors, has revolutionized the treatment of several cancers, the clinical benefit in GBM patients has been limited. Lymphocyte-activation gene 3 (LAG-3) binding to human leukocyte antigen-II (HLA-II) plays an essential role in triggering CD4+ T cell exhaustion and could interfere with the efficiency of anti-PD-1 treatment; however, the value of LAG-3-HLA-II interactions in ICI immunotherapy for GBM patients has not yet been analyzed. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the expression and regulation of HLA-II in human GBM samples and the correlation with LAG-3+CD4+ T cell infiltration. Human leukocyte antigen-II was highly expressed in GBM and correlated with increased LAG-3+CD4+ T cell infiltration in the stroma. Additionally, HLA-IIHighLAG-3High was associated with worse patient survival. Increased interleukin-10 (IL-10) expression was observed in GBM, which was correlated with high levels of HLA-II and LAG-3+ T cell infiltration in stroma. HLA-IIHighIL-10High GBM associated with LAG-3+ T cells infiltration synergistically showed shorter overall survival in patients. Combined anti-LAG-3 and anti-IL-10 treatment inhibited tumor growth in a mouse brain GL261 tumor model. In vitro, CD68+ macrophages upregulated HLA-II expression in GBM cells through tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Blocking TNF-α-dependent inflammation inhibited tumor growth in a mouse GBM model. In summary, T cell-tumor cell interactions, such as LAG-3-HLA-II, could confer an immunosuppressive environment in human GBM, leading to poor prognosis in patients. Therefore, targeting the LAG-3-HLA-II interaction could be beneficial in ICI immunotherapy to improve the clinical outcome of GBM patients.

Glioblastoma vaccines: past, present, and opportunities

Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the most lethal central nervous systems (CNS) tumours in adults. As supplements to standard of care (SOC), various immunotherapies improve the therapeutic effect in other cancers. Among them, tumour vaccines can serve as complementary monotherapy or boost the clinical efficacy with other immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T) therapy. Previous studies in GBM therapeutic vaccines have suggested that few neoantigens could be targeted in GBM due to low mutation burden, and single-peptide therapeutic vaccination had limited efficacy in tumour control as monotherapy. Combining diverse antigens, including neoantigens, tumour-associated antigens (TAAs), and pathogen-derived antigens, and optimizing vaccine design or vaccination strategy may help with clinical efficacy improvement. In this review, we discussed current GBM therapeutic vaccine platforms, evaluated and potential antigenic targets, current challenges, and perspective opportunities for efficacy improvement.

MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 is associated with poor prognosis of glioma patients and immune inhibition in glioma

Introduction

An effective therapeutic method to noticeably improve the prognosis of glioma patients has not been developed thus far. MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 (MAPKAPK2) is a serine/threonine kinase, which is involved in tumorigenesis, tumor growth, metastasis, and the inflammatory process. The clinical significance and molecular function of MAPKAPK2 in glioma remain unclear.

Methods

MAPKAPK2 expression in human glioma tissues was detected by immunohistochemistry and analyzed from the transcriptome sequencing data in TCGA and CGGA. Prognostic nomogram was constructed to predict the survival risk of individual patients. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses were performed to analyze the function and pathways MAPKAPK2 involved. Single-cell RNA sequencing data was used to analyze the cell types in which MAPKAPK2 was enriched. Flow cytometry was used for cell cycle and apoptosis detection. The ability of cell proliferation and migration was analyzed by CCK8 and cell migration assay, respectively. Correlation analyses were performed to analyze the relationship of MAPKAPK2 with immune infiltration, immune regulators, chemokine, and chemokine receptors.

Results

MAPKAPK2 was not only aberrantly upregulated in glioma tissues but also correlated with poor clinical characteristics. Moreover, MAPKAPK2 was prevalent in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) wild-type and 1p/19q non-codeletion glioma cohorts and predicted poor prognosis of glioma patients. MAPKAPK2 may be involved in cell proliferation, cell migration, DNA damage repair, and immune regulation in glioma. MAPKAPK2 was enriched in microglia/macrophages and malignant tumor cells. Further investigation into cellular function revealed that inhibiting MAPKAPK2 suppressed the proliferation and migration of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells in vitro. The inhibition of MAPKAPK2 significantly induced the G1 cell cycle arrest and cell apoptosis of GBM cells. Consistent with the enriched function of MAPKAPK2 in immune regulation, MAPKAPK2 was correlated with immune cell infiltration in glioma tissues. Mechanistically, a series of immune regulators, immunomodulatory chemokine, and chemokine receptors were positively correlated with MAPKAPK2 expression.

Discussion

Our findings provide evidence of the clinical relevance of MAPKAPK2 in prognosis evaluation of glioma patients and highlight the underlying significance of MAPKAPK2 in glioma therapy.

Neuroinflammation in Glioblastoma: The Role of the Microenvironment in Tumour Progression

Glioblastoma (GBM) stands as the most aggressive and lethal among the main types of primary brain tumors. It exhibits malignant growth, infiltrating the brain tissue, and displaying resistance toward treatment. GBM is a complex disease characterized by high degrees of heterogeneity. During tumour growth, microglia and astrocytes, among other cells, infiltrate the tumour microenvironment and contribute extensively to gliomagenesis. Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs), either of peripheral origin or representing brain-intrinsic microglia, are the most numerous nonneoplastic populations in the tumour microenvironment in GBM. The complex heterogeneous nature of GBM cells is facilitated by the local inflammatory tumour microenvironment, which mostly induces tumour aggressiveness and drug resistance. The immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment of GBM provides multiple pathways for tumour immune evasion, contributing to tumour progression. Additionally, TAMs and astrocytes can contribute to tumour progression through the release of cytokines and activation of signalling pathways. In this review, we summarize the role of the microenvironment in GBM progression, focusing on neuroinflammation. These recent advancements in research of the microenvironment hold the potential to offer a promising approach to the treatment of GBM in the coming times.

Enhancement of Microglia Functions by Developed Nano-Immuno-Synergist to Ameliorate Immunodeficiency for Malignant Glioma Treatment

Resident microglia are key factors in mediating immunity against brain tumors, but the microglia in malignant glioma are functionally impaired. Little immunotherapy is explored to restore microglial function against glioma. Herein, oleanolic acid (OA) (microglia "restorer") and D PPA-1 peptide (immune checkpoint blockade) are integrated on a nano-immuno-synergist (D PAM@OA) to work coordinately. The self-assembled OA core is coated with macrophage membrane for efficient blood-brain barrier penetration and microglia targeting, on which D PPA-1 peptide is attached via acid-sensitive bonds for specific release in tumor microenvironment. With the enhanced accumulation of the dual drugs in their respective action sites, D PAM@OA effectively promotes the recruitment and activation of effector T cells by inhibiting aberrant activation of Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT-3) pathway in microglia, and assists activated effector T cells in killing tumor cells by blocking elevated immune checkpoint proteins in malignant glioma. Eventually, as adjuvant therapy, the rationally designed nano-immuno-synergist hinders malignant glioma progression and recurrence with or without temozolomide. The work demonstrates the feasibility of a nano-formulation for microglia-based immunotherapy, which may provide a new direction for the treatment of brain tumors.

Engineering the glioblastoma microenvironment with bioactive nanoparticles for effective immunotherapy

While immunotherapies have revolutionized treatment for other cancers, glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) patients have not shown similar positive responses. The limited response to immunotherapies is partly due to the unique challenges associated with the GBM tumor microenvironment (TME), which promotes resistance to immunotherapies, causing many promising therapies to fail. There is, therefore, an urgent need to develop strategies that make the TME immune permissive to promote treatment efficacy. Bioactive nano-delivery systems, in which the nanoparticle, due to its chemical composition, provides the pharmacological function, have recently emerged as an encouraging option for enhancing the efficacy of immunotherapeutics. These systems are designed to overcome immunosuppressive mechanisms in the TME to improve the efficacy of a therapy. This review will discuss different aspects of the TME and how they impede therapy success. Then, we will summarize recent developments in TME-modifying nanotherapeutics and the in vitro models utilized to facilitate these advances.

Mechanistic insights into super-enhancer-driven genes as prognostic signatures in patients with glioblastoma

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the most common malignant brain tumors in adults and is characterized by high aggressiveness and rapid progression, poor treatment, high recurrence rate, and poor prognosis. Although super-enhancer (SE)-driven genes haven been recognized as prognostic markers for several cancers, whether it can be served as effective prognostic markers for patients with GBM has not been evaluated.

METHODS

We first combined histone modification data with transcriptome data to identify SE-driven genes associated with prognosis in patients with GBM. Second, we developed a SE-driven differentially expressed genes (SEDEGs) risk score prognostic model by univariate Cox analysis, KM survival analysis, multivariate Cox analysis and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression. Its reliability in predicting was verified by two external data sets. Third, through mutation analysis, immune infiltration, we explored the molecular mechanisms of prognostic genes. Next, Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) and the Connectivity Map (cMap) database were employed to assess different sensitivities to chemotherapeutic agents and small-molecule drug candidates between high- and low-risk patients. Finally, SEanalysis database was chosen to identify SE-driven transcription factors (TFs) regulating prognostic markers which will reveal a potential SE-driven transcriptional regulatory network.

RESULTS

First, we developed a 11-gene risk score prognostic model (NCF2, MTHFS, DUSP6, G6PC3, HOXB2, EN2, DLEU1, LBH, ZEB1-AS1, LINC01265, and AGAP2-AS1) selected from 1,154 SEDEGs, which is not only an independent prognostic factor for patients, but also can effectively predict the survival rate of patients. The model can effectively predict 1-, 2- and 3-year survival of patients and was validated in external Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets. Second, the risk score was positively correlated with the infiltration of regulatory T cell, CD4 memory activated T cell, activated NK cell, neutrophil, resting mast cell, M0 macrophage, and memory B cell. Third, we found that high-risk patients showed higher sensitivity than low-risk patients to both 27 chemotherapeutic agents and 4 small-molecule drug candidates which might benefit further precision therapy for GBM patients. Finally, 13 potential SE-driven TFs imply how SE regulates GBM patient's prognosis.

CONCLUSION

The SEDEG risk model not only helps to elucidate the impact of SEs on the course of GBM, but also provides a bright future for prognosis determination and choice of treatment for GBM patients.

Dual Role of CXCL8 in Maintaining the Mesenchymal State of Glioblastoma Stem Cells and M2-Like Tumor-Associated Macrophages

PURPOSE

The dynamic interplay between glioblastoma stem cells (GSC) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) sculpts the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) and promotes malignant progression of glioblastoma (GBM). However, the mechanisms underlying this interaction are still incompletely understood. Here, we investigate the role of CXCL8 in the maintenance of the mesenchymal state of GSC populations and reprogramming the TIME to an immunosuppressive state.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We performed an integrative multi-omics analyses of RNA sequencing, GBM mRNA expression datasets, immune signatures, and epigenetic profiling to define the specific genes expressed in the mesenchymal GSC subsets. We then used patient-derived GSCs and a xenograft murine model to investigate the mechanisms of tumor-intrinsic and extrinsic factor to maintain the mesenchymal state of GSCs and induce TAM polarization.

RESULTS

We identified that CXCL8 was preferentially expressed and secreted by mesenchymal GSCs and activated PI3K/AKT and NF-κB signaling to maintain GSC proliferation, survival, and self-renewal through a cell-intrinsic mechanism. CXCL8 induced signaling through a CXCR2-JAK2/STAT3 axis in TAMs, which supported an M2-like TAM phenotype through a paracrine, cell-extrinsic pathway. Genetic- and small molecule-based inhibition of these dual complementary signaling cascades in GSCs and TAMs suppressed GBM tumor growth and prolonged survival of orthotopic xenograft-bearing mice.

CONCLUSIONS

CXCL8 plays critical roles in maintaining the mesenchymal state of GSCs and M2-like TAM polarization in GBM, highlighting an interplay between cell-autonomous and cell-extrinsic mechanisms. Targeting CXCL8 and its downstream effectors may effectively improve GBM treatment.

Genetically modified IL2 bone-marrow-derived myeloid cells reprogram the glioma immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

Gliomas are one of the leading causes of cancer-related death in the adolescent and young adult (AYA) population. Two-thirds of AYA glioma patients are affected by low-grade gliomas (LGGs), but there are no specific treatments. Malignant progression is supported by the immunosuppressive stromal component of the tumor microenvironment (TME) exacerbated by M2 macrophages and a paucity of cytotoxic T cells. A single intravenous dose of engineered bone-marrow-derived myeloid cells that release interleukin-2 (GEMys-IL2) was used to treat mice with LGGs. Our results demonstrate that GEMys-IL2 crossed the blood-brain barrier, infiltrated the TME, and reprogrammed the immune cell composition and transcriptome. Moreover, GEMys-IL2 extended survival in an LGG immunocompetent mouse model. Here, we report the efficacy of an in vivo approach that demonstrates the potential for a cell-mediated innate immunotherapy designed to enhance the recruitment of activated effector T and natural killer cells within the glioma TME.

Development of Prognostic Indicator Based on AU-Rich Elements-Related Genes in Glioblastoma

BACKGROUND

AREs (AU-rich elements) are important cis-acting short sequences in the 3'UTR (3'-untranslated region) that affect messenger RNA stability and translation. However, there were no systematic researches about AREs-related genes to predict the survival of patients with GBM (glioblastoma).

METHODS

Differentially expressed genes were acquired from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas databases. Differentially expressed AREs-related genes were filtered by overlapping differentially expressed genes and AREs-related genes. The prognostic genes were selected to construct a risk model. Patients with GBM were categorized into 2 risk groups depending on the medium value of risk score. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis was performed to explore the potential biological pathways. We explored the correlation between the risk model and immune cells. The chemotherapy sensitivity was predicted in different risk groups.

RESULTS

A risk model was constructed by 10 differentially expressed AREs-related genes (GNS, ANKH, PTPRN2, NELL1, PLAUR, SLC9A2, SCARA3, MAPK1, HOXB2, and EN2), and it could accurately predict the prognosis of patients with GBM. Higher risk scores for patients with GBM had a lower survival probability. The predictive power of risk model was decent. The risk score and treatment type were regarded as independent prognostic indicators. The mainly Gene Set Enrichment Analysis enrichment pathways were primary immunodeficiency and chemokine signaling pathway. Six immune cells were significant different in the 2 risk groups. There were higher abundance of macrophages M2 and neutrophils and higher sensitivity of 11 chemotherapy drugs in the high-risk group.

CONCLUSIONS

The 10 biomarkers might be important prognostic markers and potential therapeutic targets for patients with GBM.

Immunotherapy in glioblastoma treatment: Current state and future prospects

Glioblastoma remains as the most common and aggressive malignant brain tumor, standing with a poor prognosis and treatment prospective. Despite the aggressive standard care, such as surgical resection and chemoradiation, median survival rates are low. In this regard, immunotherapeutic strategies aim to become more attractive for glioblastoma, considering its recent advances and approaches. In this review, we provide an overview of the current status and progress in immunotherapy for glioblastoma, going through the fundamental knowledge on immune targeting to promising strategies, such as Chimeric antigen receptor T-Cell therapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, cytokine-based treatment, oncolytic virus and vaccine-based techniques. At last, it is discussed innovative methods to overcome diverse challenges, and future perspectives in this area.

Multimodal study of CHI3L1 inhibition and its effect on angiogenesis, migration, immune response and refractive index of cellular structures in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma is one of the most aggressive tumours with a poor response to treatment and a poor prognosis for patients. One of the proteins expressed in glioblastoma tissue is CHI3L1 (YKL-40), which is upregulated and known for its angiogenesis-supporting and pro-tumour immunomodulatory effects in a variety of cancers. In this paper we present the anti-angiogenic, anti-migratory and immunomodulatory effects of the compound G721-0282, an inhibitor of CHI3L1. The inhibitor-induced changes were investigated using conventional techniques as well as the novel label-free digital holographic tomography (DHT), a quantitative phase imaging technique that allows the reconstruction of the refractive index (RI), which is used as an image contrast for 3D visualisation of living cells. DHT allowed digital staining of individual cells and intercellular structures based only on their specific RI. Quantitative spatially resolved analysis of the RI data shows that the concentration of G721-0282 leads to significant changes in the density of cells and their intracellular structures (in particular the cytoplasm and nucleus), in the volume of lipid droplets and in protein concentrations. Studies in the U-87 MG glioblastoma cell line, THP-1 monocytes differentiated into macrophages, human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) and in the spheroid model of glioblastoma composed of U-87 MG, HMEC-1 and macrophages suggest that inhibition of CHI3L1 may have potential in the antitumour treatment of glioblastoma. In this paper, we also propose a spheroid model for in vitro studies that mimics this type of tumour.

Phagocytosis of Glioma Cells Enhances the Immunosuppressive Phenotype of Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) play a crucial role in immunosuppression. However, how TAMs are transformed into immunosuppressive phenotypes and influence the tumor microenvironment (TME) is not fully understood. Here, we utilized single-cell RNA sequencing and whole-exome sequencing data of glioblastoma (GBM) tissues and identified a subset of TAMs dually expressing macrophage and tumor signatures, which were termed double-positive TAMs. Double-positive TAMs tended to be bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) and were characterized by immunosuppressive phenotypes. Phagocytosis of glioma cells by BMDMs in vitro generated double-positive TAMs with similar immunosuppressive phenotypes to double-positive TAMs in the GBM TME of patients. The double-positive TAMs were transformed into M2-like macrophages and drove immunosuppression by expressing immune-checkpoint proteins CD276, PD-L1, and PD-L2 and suppressing the proliferation of activated T cells. Together, glioma cell phagocytosis by BMDMs in the TME leads to the formation of double-positive TAMs with enhanced immunosuppressive phenotypes, shedding light on the processes driving TAM-mediated immunosuppression in GBM.

SIGNIFICANCE

Bone marrow-derived macrophages phagocytose glioblastoma cells to form double-positive cells, dually expressing macrophage and tumor signatures that are transformed into M2-like macrophages and drive immunosuppression.

Overexpression of TPM4 is associated with worse prognosis and immune infiltration in patients with glioma

BACKGROUND

Tropomyosin 4 (TPM4), a member of the tropomyosin family, is aberrantly expressed and plays an important role in a variety of cancers. However, studies on TPM4 in glioma patients are currently lacking.

OBJECTIVE

Our study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic and prognostic characteristics of TPM4 in glioma and its correlation with immune infiltration.

METHODS

Bioinformatic analysis was performed to determine whether TPM4 has diagnostic and prognostic value for glioma. The following databases and analytical tools were used to explore the clinical significance of TPM4 in glioma: TCGA, GTEx, GEO, STRING, and TISIDB.

RESULTS

Our study showed that the mRNA and protein expression levels of TPM4 were significantly higher in glioma than in healthy brain tissue. Kaplan-Meier analysis indicated that high expression of TPM4 in glioma correlated with poor prognosis. Univariate Cox analysis indicated that the high expression level of TPM4 in glioma was an independent prognostic characteristic for low overall survival (OS). The areas under the 1-year survival ROC, 2-year survival ROC, and 3-year survival ROC were all greater than 0.8. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis and GSEA showed that humoral immune response and cytokine receptor interaction were significantly enriched in the TPM4 high expression group, where M phase of the cell cycle, neutrophil degranulation, signaling by interleukins, and signaling by rho GTPases were significantly enriched. Furthermore, according to the analysis of immune cell infiltration, TPM4 was associated with tumor infiltration of a variety of immune cells.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, our study suggests that TPM4 may be an effective prognostic biomarker for glioma patients, providing new ideas and research directions for glioma research.

Pre-clinical models for evaluating glioma targeted immunotherapies

Gliomas have an extremely poor prognosis in both adult and pediatric patient populations as these tumors are known to grow aggressively and respond poorly to standard of care treatment. Currently, treatment for gliomas involves surgical resection followed by chemoradiation therapy. However, some gliomas, such as diffuse midline glioma, have more limited treatment options such as radiotherapy alone. Even with these interventions, the prognosis for those diagnosed with a glioma remains poor. Immunotherapy is highly effective for some cancers and there is great interest in the development of effective immunotherapies for the treatment of gliomas. Clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of immunotherapies targeted to gliomas have largely failed to date, and we believe this is partially due to the poor choice in pre-clinical mouse models that are used to evaluate these immunotherapies. A key consideration in evaluating new immunotherapies is the selection of pre-clinical models that mimic the glioma-immune response in humans. Multiple pre-clinical options are currently available, each one with their own benefits and limitations. Informed selection of pre-clinical models for testing can facilitate translation of more promising immunotherapies in the clinical setting. In this review we plan to present glioma cell lines and mouse models, as well as alternatives to mouse models, that are available for pre-clinical glioma immunotherapy studies. We plan to discuss considerations of model selection that should be made for future studies as we hope this review can serve as a guide for investigators as they choose which model is best suited for their study.

DNALI1 is a prognosis-related biomarker and correlates with immune infiltrates in low grade glioma

BACKGROUND

Dynein axonemal light intermediate chain 1 (DNALI1) is a component of axonemal dyneins and its role in cancer progression is not known.

OBJECTIVE

The influence of DNALI1 expression on the prognosis of low-grade gliomas (LGG) and the possible mechanisms of DNALI1 in promoting the progression of LGG was investigated by applying multiple bioinformatics analyses using datasets from TCGA, GTEx, CPTAC, and CGGA.

METHODS

The expression of DNALI1 in different tumor tissues including LGG was investigated. GO functional annotation, KEGG pathway analysis, and GSEA enrichment analysis were performed. The correlation between DNALI1 and prognosis, tumor microenvironment (TME) and immune checkpoints in LGG were assessed.

RESULTS

DNALI1 is mainly expressed in malignant cells in the TME of LGG and positively correlated with the development of LGG. DNALI1 expression is negatively correlated with isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutations and 1p/19q co-deletion. High DNALI1 expression is associated with poor prognosis in LGG. DNALI1 may promote LGG progression through multiple immune-related pathways. The expression of DNALI1 is positively correlated with the infiltration of certain types of immune cells and the expression of some immune checkpoints.

CONCLUSIONS

DNALI1 is a potential prognostic marker for LGG, and high expression of DNALI1 may play an important role in maintaining the immunosuppressive microenvironment of LGG.

Targeting FGL2 in glioma immunosuppression and malignant progression

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most malignant type of glioma with the worst prognosis. Traditional therapies (surgery combined with radiotherapy and chemotherapy) have limited therapeutic effects. As a novel therapy emerging in recent years, immunotherapy is increasingly used in glioblastoma (GBM), so we expect to discover more effective immune targets. FGL2, a member of the thrombospondin family, plays an essential role in regulating the activity of immune cells and tumor cells in GBM. Elucidating the role of FGL2 in GBM can help improve immunotherapy efficacy and design treatment protocols. This review discusses the immunosuppressive role of FGL2 in the GBM tumor microenvironment and its ability to promote malignant tumor progression while considering FGL2-targeted therapeutic strategies. Also, we summarize the molecular mechanisms of FGL2 expression on various immune cell types and discuss the possibility of FGL2 and its related mechanisms as new GBM immunotherapy.

The Chromatin-Oxygen Sensor Gene KDM5C Associates with Novel Hypoxia-Related Signatures in Glioblastoma Multiforme

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a fatal brain tumor without effective drug treatment. In this study, we highlight, for the first time, the contribution of chromatin remodeling gene Lysine (K)-specific demethylase 5C (KDM5C) in GBM via an extensive analysis of clinical, expression, and functional data, integrated with publicly available omic datasets. The expression analysis on GBM samples (N = 37) revealed two informative subtypes, namely KDM5C^High and KDM5C^Low, displaying higher/lower KDM5C levels compared to the controls. The former subtype displays a strong downregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)—a negative KDM5C target—and a robust overexpression of hypoxia-inducible transcription factor-1A (HIF1A) gene, a KDM5C modulator. Additionally, a significant co-expression among the prognostic markers HIF1A, Survivin, and p75 was observed. These results, corroborated by KDM5C overexpression and hypoxia-related functional assays in T98G cells, suggest a role for the HIF1A-KDM5C axis in the hypoxic response in this tumor. Interestingly, fluorescence-guided surgery on GBM sections further revealed higher KDM5C and HIF1A levels in the tumor rim niche compared to the adjacent tumor margin, indicating a regionally restricted hyperactivity of this regulatory axis. Analyzing the TCGA expression and methylation data, we found methylation changes between the subtypes in the genes, accounting for the hypoxia response, stem cell differentiation, and inflammation. High NANOG and IL6 levels highlight a distinctive stem cell-like and proinflammatory signature in the KDM5C^High subgroup and GBM niches. Taken together, our results indicate HIF1A-KDM5C as a new, relevant cancer axis in GBM, opening a new, interesting field of investigation based on KDM5C as a potential therapeutic target of the hypoxic microenvironment in GBM.

Downregulated ferroptosis-related gene SQLE facilitates temozolomide chemoresistance, and invasion and affects immune regulation in glioblastoma

Chemoresistance in patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a common reason hindering the success of treatment. Recently, ferroptosis has been reported to be associated with chemoresistance in different types of cancer, while the role of ferroptosis-related genes in GBM have not been fully elucidated. This study aimed to demonstrate the roles and mechanism of ferroptosis-related genes in chemoresistance and metastasis of GBM. First, two candidate genes, squalene epoxidase (SQLE) and FANCD2, were identified to be associated with ferroptosis-related chemoresistance in GBM from three temozolomide (TMZ) therapeutic datasets and one ferroptosis-related gene dataset. Then, comprehensive bio-informatics data from different databases testified that SQLE was significantly downregulated both in GBM tissue and cells and displayed a better prognosis in GBM. Clinical data identified lower expression of SQLE was significantly associated with WHO grade and 1p/19q codeletion. Moreover, through in vitro experiments, SQLE was confirmed to suppress ERK-mediated TMZ chemoresistance and metastasis of GBM cells. The KEGG analysis of SQLE-associated co-expressed genes indicated SQLE was potentially involved in the cell cycle. Furthermore, SQLE was found to have the most significant correlations with tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and immunomodulators. These findings highlighted that SQLE could be a potential target and a biomarker for therapy and prognosis of patients with GBM.

Clinical Value of Cytokine Assay in Diagnosis and Severity Assessment of Lung Cancer

Purpose

To investigate the clinical value of interleukin 2 (IL-2), interleukin 4 (IL-4), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 10 (IL-10), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in diagnosis and severity assessment of lung cancer.

Methods

In this observational study, 50 physical examination healthy subjects were included in the control group and 100 lung cancer patients were included in the study group. In the study group, 53 cases with pleural effusion were subgrouped to the pleural effusion group (n = 53), while 47 patients were assigned to the nonpleural effusion group (n = 47). Plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) scores of all eligible subjects were collected and compared.

Results

The study group showed significantly higher levels of plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ versus healthy subjects (P < 0.05). Deterioration of lung cancer was associated with increased plasma cytokine levels and APACHE II scores. The combination assay of the above plasma cytokines showed significantly better diagnostic efficacy for lung cancer versus the single assay of the cytokines. Dead patients had higher plasma cytokine levels versus survived patients. The accuracy of plasma IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ levels in the severity assessment of lung cancer was comparable with that of the APACHE II scale.

Conclusion

The plasma cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, and IFN-γ are effective markers for the diagnosis of lung cancer. The combined assay contributes to the early diagnosis of lung cancer patients, and the persistent elevation of cytokines suggests an increased risk of death in lung cancer patients, so the detection of cytokine levels facilitates the severity assessment of lung cancer.

The Dynamics of Tumor-Infiltrating Myeloid Cell Activation and the Cytokine Expression Profile in a Glioma Resection Site during the Post-Surgical Period in Mice

Glioblastoma is the most aggressive brain cancer and is highly infiltrated with cells of myeloid lineage (TIM) that support tumor growth and invasion. Tumor resection is the primary treatment for glioblastoma; however, the activation state of TIM at the site of tumor resection and its impact on glioma regrowth are poorly understood. Using the C57BL/6/GL261 mouse glioma implantation model, we investigated the state of TIM in the tumor resection area during the post-surgical period. TIM isolated from brain tissue at the resection site were analyzed at 0, 1, 4, 7, 14, and 21 days after tumor resection. An increase in expression of CD86 during the first 7 days after surgical resection and then upregulation of arginase 1 from the 14th to 21st days after resection were detected. Cytokine expression analysis combined with qRT-PCR revealed sustained upregulation of IL4, IL5, IL10, IL12, IL17, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1/CCL2) in TIM purified from regrown tumors compared with primary implanted tumors. Flow cytometry analysis revealed increased CD86+/CD206+ population in regrown tumors compared with primary implanted tumors. Overall, we found that TIM in primary implanted tumors and tumors regrown after resection exhibited different phenotypes and cytokine expression patterns.

A Pyroptosis-Related Gene Signature Associated with Prognosis and Tumor Immune Microenvironment in Gliomas

Background

Pyroptosis is a novel form of cell death that plays a significant role in cancer, while the prognostic values of pyroptosis-related genes in gliomas have not been revealed.

Methods

We analyzed the RNA-seq and clinical data of gliomas from the University of California Santa Cruz (UCSC) Xena database to determine differentially expressed pyroptosis-related genes. Based on these genes, a pyroptosis genes signature was constructed after univariate Cox analysis and Lasso Cox analyses. The sensitivity and specificity of pyroptosis genes signature were verified by the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA) dataset. Finally, we explored the association of risk signatures with tumor microenvironment and immune cell infiltration.

Results

Of 15 differentially expressed pyroptosis-related genes, three genes of BCL2 associated X (BAX), caspase 3 (CASP3), and caspase 4 (CASP4) were used to construct the risk signature. The effectiveness of risk signature for predicting survival at 1, 3, 5 years was performed by the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC), and the area under curves (AUC) was 0.739, 0.817, and 0.800, respectively. Functional enrichment results showed signal transduction, cell adhesion, immune response, and inflammatory response were enriched. The immune analysis revealed that pyroptosis had a remarkable effect on the immune microenvironment.

Conclusion

In this study, we constructed a pyroptosis-related gene signature, which can serve as a potential biomarker for predicting the survival of glioma patients. Additionally, we suggested that pyroptosis may promote gliomas development by inducing chronic inflammation microenvironment.

Coming in from the cold: overcoming the hostile immune microenvironment of medulloblastoma

Medulloblastoma is an aggressive brain tumor that occurs predominantly in children. Despite intensive therapy, many patients die of the disease, and novel therapies are desperately needed. Although immunotherapy has shown promise in many cancers, the low mutational burden, limited infiltration of immune effector cells, and immune-suppressive microenvironment of medulloblastoma have led to the assumption that it is unlikely to respond to immunotherapy. However, emerging evidence is challenging this view. Here we review recent preclinical and clinical studies that have identified mechanisms of immune evasion in medulloblastoma, and highlight possible therapeutic interventions that may give new hope to medulloblastoma patients and their families.

A Hypoxia-Related Long Non-Coding RNAs Signature Associated With Prognosis in Lower-Grade Glioma

Accumulating evidence suggests that hypoxia microenvironment and long non-coding lncRNAs (lncRNAs) exert critical roles in tumor development. Herein, we aim to develop a hypoxia-related lncRNA (HRL) model to predict the survival outcomes of patient with lower-grade glioma (LGG). The RNA-sequencing data of 505 LGG samples were acquired from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Using consensus clustering based on the expression of hypoxia-related mRNAs, these samples were divided into three subsets that exhibit distinct hypoxia content, clinicopathologic features, and survival status. The differentially expressed lncRNAs across the subgroups were documented as candidate HRLs. With LASSO regression analysis, eight informative lncRNAs were selected for constructing the prognostic HRL model. This signature had a good performance in predicting LGG patients’ overall survival in the TCGA cohort, and similar results could be achieved in two validation cohorts from the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas. The HRL model also showed correlations with important clinicopathologic characteristics such as patients’ age, tumor grade, IDH mutation, 1p/19q codeletion, MGMT methylation, and tumor progression risk. Functional enrichment analysis indicated that the HLR signature was mainly involved in regulation of inflammatory response, complement, hypoxia, Kras signaling, and apical junction. More importantly, the signature was related to immune cell infiltration, estimated immune score, tumor mutation burden, neoantigen load, and expressions of immune checkpoints and immunosuppressive cytokines. Finally, a nomogram was developed by integrating the HRL signature and clinicopathologic features, with a concordance index of 0.852 to estimate the survival probability of LGG patients. In conclusion, our study established an effective HRL model for prognosis assessment of LGG patients, which may provide insights for future research and facilitate the designing of individualized treatment.