1
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Muraro E, Montico B, Lum B, Colizzi F, Giurato G, Salvati A, Guerrieri R, Rizzo A, Comaro E, Canzonieri V, Anichini A, Del Vecchio M, Mortarini R, Milione M, Weisz A, Pizzichetta MA, Simpson F, Dolcetti R, Fratta E, Sigalotti L. Antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity-inducing anti-EGFR antibodies as effective therapeutic option for cutaneous melanoma resistant to BRAF inhibitors. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1336566. [PMID: 38510242 PMCID: PMC10950948 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1336566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction About 50% of cutaneous melanoma (CM) patients present activating BRAF mutations that can be effectively targeted by BRAF inhibitors (BRAFi). However, 20% of CM patients exhibit intrinsic drug resistance to BRAFi, while most of the others develop adaptive resistance over time. The mechanisms involved in BRAFi resistance are disparate and globally seem to rewire the cellular signaling profile by up-regulating different receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), such as the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). RTKs inhibitors have not clearly demonstrated anti-tumor activity in BRAFi resistant models. To overcome this issue, we wondered whether the shared up-regulated RTK phenotype associated with BRAFi resistance could be exploited by using immune weapons as the antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC)-mediated effect of anti-RTKs antibodies, and kill tumor cells independently from the mechanistic roots. Methods and results By using an in vitro model of BRAFi resistance, we detected increased membrane expression of EGFR, both at mRNA and protein level in 4 out of 9 BRAFi-resistant (VR) CM cultures as compared to their parental sensitive cells. Increased EGFR phosphorylation and AKT activation were observed in the VR CM cultures. EGFR signaling appeared dispensable for maintaining resistance, since small molecule-, antibody- and CRISPR-targeting of EGFR did not restore sensitivity of VR cells to BRAFi. Importantly, immune-targeting of EGFR by the anti-EGFR antibody cetuximab efficiently and specifically killed EGFR-expressing VR CM cells, both in vitro and in humanized mouse models in vivo, triggering ADCC by healthy donors' and patients' peripheral blood cells. Conclusion Our data demonstrate the efficacy of immune targeting of RTKs expressed by CM relapsing on BRAFi, providing the proof-of-concept supporting the assessment of anti-RTK antibodies in combination therapies in this setting. This strategy might be expected to concomitantly trigger the crosstalk of adaptive immune response leading to a complementing T cell immune rejection of tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Muraro
- Immunopathology and Cancer Biomarkers, Department of Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Barbara Montico
- Immunopathology and Cancer Biomarkers, Department of Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Benedict Lum
- Frazer Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Francesca Colizzi
- Immunopathology and Cancer Biomarkers, Department of Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Giorgio Giurato
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, Baronissi, Italy
- Genome Research Center for Health - CRGS, Baronissi, Italy
| | - Annamaria Salvati
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, Baronissi, Italy
- Genome Research Center for Health - CRGS, Baronissi, Italy
- Molecular Pathology and Medical Genomics Program, AOU 'S. Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d'Aragona' University of Salerno and Rete Oncologica Campana, Salerno, Italy
| | - Roberto Guerrieri
- Immunopathology and Cancer Biomarkers, Department of Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Aurora Rizzo
- Immunopathology and Cancer Biomarkers, Department of Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Elisa Comaro
- Immunopathology and Cancer Biomarkers, Department of Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Canzonieri
- Division of Pathology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Andrea Anichini
- Human Tumors Immunobiology Unit, Department of Research, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Michele Del Vecchio
- Melanoma Unit, Department of Medical Oncology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Roberta Mortarini
- Human Tumors Immunobiology Unit, Department of Research, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Milione
- Pathology Unit 1, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Weisz
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Genomics, Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, Baronissi, Italy
- Genome Research Center for Health - CRGS, Baronissi, Italy
- Molecular Pathology and Medical Genomics Program, AOU 'S. Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d'Aragona' University of Salerno and Rete Oncologica Campana, Salerno, Italy
| | - Maria Antonietta Pizzichetta
- Division of Medical Oncology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
- Department of Dermatology, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Fiona Simpson
- Frazer Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Riccardo Dolcetti
- Translational and Clinical Immunotherapy, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Elisabetta Fratta
- Immunopathology and Cancer Biomarkers, Department of Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Luca Sigalotti
- Oncogenetics and Functional Oncogenomics Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
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2
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Dai H, Xu W, Wang L, Li X, Sheng X, Zhu L, Li Y, Dong X, Zhou W, Han C, Mao Y, Yao L. Loss of SPRY2 contributes to cancer-associated fibroblasts activation and promotes breast cancer development. Breast Cancer Res 2023; 25:90. [PMID: 37507768 PMCID: PMC10375677 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-023-01683-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The communication between tumor cells and tumor microenvironment plays a critical role in cancer development. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the major components of the tumor microenvironment and take part in breast cancer formation and progression. Here, by comparing the gene expression patterns in CAFs and normal fibroblasts, we found SPRY2 expression was significantly decreased in CAFs and decreased SPRY2 expression was correlated with worse prognosis in breast cancer patients. SPRY2 knockdown in fibroblasts promoted tumor growth and distant metastasis of breast cancer in mice. Loss of stromal SPRY2 expression promoted CAF activation dependent on glycolytic metabolism. Mechanically, SPRY2 suppressed Y10 phosphorylation of LDHA and LDHA activity by interfering with the interaction between LDHA and SRC. Functionally, SPRY2 knockdown in fibroblasts enhanced the stemness of tumor cell dependent on glycolysis in fibroblasts. Collectively, this work identified SPRY2 as a negative regulator of CAF activation, and SPRY2 in CAFs may potentially be therapeutically targeted in breast cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huijuan Dai
- Department of Breast Surgery, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenting Xu
- Department of Pathology, The International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital of China Welfare Institution, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 910 Hengshan Road, Shanghai, 200030, People's Republic of China
| | - Lulu Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cancer Invasion and Metastasis Research, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaonan Sheng
- Department of Breast Surgery, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Systems Medicine for Cancer, Shanghai Cancer Institute, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Ye Li
- Department of Breast Surgery, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinrui Dong
- Department of Breast Surgery, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Weihang Zhou
- Department of Breast Surgery, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Chenyu Han
- Department of Endocrinology, Qingpu Branch of Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, 1158 Gongyuan Road, Shanghai, 201700, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yan Mao
- Breast Disease Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, No. 59 Haier Road, Qingdao, 266003, Shandong, People's Republic of China.
| | - Linli Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Systems Medicine for Cancer, Shanghai Cancer Institute, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China.
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3
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Shi T, Li X, Zheng J, Duan Z, Ooi YY, Gao Y, Wang Q, Yang J, Wang L, Yao L. Increased SPRY1 expression activates NF-κB signaling and promotes pancreatic cancer progression by recruiting neutrophils and macrophages through CXCL12-CXCR4 axis. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2023:10.1007/s13402-023-00791-z. [PMID: 37014552 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-023-00791-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive disease with a high mortality rate, in which about 90% of patients harbor somatic oncogenic point mutations in KRAS. SPRY family genes have been recognized as crucial negative regulators of Ras/Raf/ERK signaling. Here, we investigate the expression and role of SPRY proteins in PDAC. METHODS Expression of SPRY genes in human and mice PDAC was analyzed using The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus datasets, and by immunohistochemistry analysis. Gain-of-function, loss-of-function of Spry1 and orthotopic xenograft model were adopted to investigate the function of Spry1 in mice PDAC. Bioinformatics analysis, transwell and flowcytometry analysis were used to identify the effects of SPRY1 on immune cells. Co-immunoprecipitation and K-ras4B G12V overexpression were used to identify molecular mechanism. RESULTS SPRY1 expression was remarkably increased in PDAC tissues and positively associated with poor prognosis of PDAC patients. SPRY1 knockdown suppressed tumor growth in mice. SPRY1 was found to promote CXCL12 expression and facilitate neutrophil and macrophage infiltration via CXCL12-CXCR4 axis. Pharmacological inhibition of CXCL12-CXCR4 largely abrogated the oncogenic functions of SPRY1 by suppressing neutrophil and macrophage infiltration. Mechanistically, SPRY1 interacted with ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1 to induce activation of nuclear factor κB signaling and ultimately increase CXCL12 expression. Moreover, SPRY1 transcription was dependent on KRAS mutation and was mediated by MAPK-ERK signaling. CONCLUSION High expression of SPRY1 can function as an oncogene in PDAC by promoting cancer-associated inflammation. Targeting SPRY1 might be an important approach for designing new strategy of tumor therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiezhu Shi
- School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou University, 230 Wai Huan Xi Road, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200233, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiahao Zheng
- Department of Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Road, Shanghai, 200127, People's Republic of China
| | - Zonghao Duan
- Department of Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Road, Shanghai, 200127, People's Republic of China
| | - Yin Yin Ooi
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University. No. 1, Jalan Taylor's, Subang Jaya, Selangor, 47500, Malaysia
| | - Yan Gao
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cancer Invasion and Metastasis Research, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianyu Yang
- Department of Biliary-Pancreatic Surgery, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pujian Road, Shanghai, 200127, People's Republic of China.
| | - Lulu Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China.
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cancer Invasion and Metastasis Research, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, People's Republic of China.
| | - Linli Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Cancer Institute, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China.
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4
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Luo H, Xia X, Huang LB, An H, Cao M, Kim GD, Chen HN, Zhang WH, Shu Y, Kong X, Ren Z, Li PH, Liu Y, Tang H, Sun R, Li C, Bai B, Jia W, Liu Y, Zhang W, Yang L, Peng Y, Dai L, Hu H, Jiang Y, Hu Y, Zhu J, Jiang H, Li Z, Caulin C, Park J, Xu H. Pan-cancer single-cell analysis reveals the heterogeneity and plasticity of cancer-associated fibroblasts in the tumor microenvironment. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6619. [PMID: 36333338 PMCID: PMC9636408 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34395-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 71.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the predominant components of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and influence cancer hallmarks, but without systematic investigation on their ubiquitous characteristics across different cancer types. Here, we perform pan-cancer analysis on 226 samples across 10 solid cancer types to profile the TME at single-cell resolution, illustrating the commonalities/plasticity of heterogenous CAFs. Activation trajectory of the major CAF types is divided into three states, exhibiting distinct interactions with other cell components, and relating to prognosis of immunotherapy. Moreover, minor CAF components represent the alternative origin from other TME components (e.g., endothelia and macrophages). Particularly, the ubiquitous presentation of endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition CAF, which may interact with proximal SPP1+ tumor-associated macrophages, is implicated in endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition and survival stratifications. Our study comprehensively profiles the shared characteristics and dynamics of CAFs, and highlight their heterogeneity and plasticity across different cancer types. Browser of integrated pan-cancer single-cell information is available at https://gist-fgl.github.io/sc-caf-atlas/ .
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Luo
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Laboratory of thyroid and parathyroid disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Department of General Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Laboratory Medicine/Research Centre of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Xuyang Xia
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Laboratory Medicine/Research Centre of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Li-Bin Huang
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Department of General Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Gastrointestinal Surgery, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Hyunsu An
- grid.61221.360000 0001 1033 9831School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Minyuan Cao
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Gyeong Dae Kim
- grid.61221.360000 0001 1033 9831School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hai-Ning Chen
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Department of General Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Colorectal Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Wei-Han Zhang
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Department of General Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Gastric Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Yang Shu
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Gastric Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Xiangyu Kong
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Laboratory of thyroid and parathyroid disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Department of General Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Zhixiang Ren
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Pei-Heng Li
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Laboratory of thyroid and parathyroid disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Department of General Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Yang Liu
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Laboratory of thyroid and parathyroid disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Department of General Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Huairong Tang
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Health Promotion Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Ronghao Sun
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Laboratory of thyroid and parathyroid disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.54549.390000 0004 0369 4060Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Chao Li
- grid.54549.390000 0004 0369 4060Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Bing Bai
- grid.218292.20000 0000 8571 108XState Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research, Institute of Primate Translational Medicine, Kunming University of Science and Technology; Yunnan Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research, Kunming, Yunnan China
| | - Weiguo Jia
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Center for Geriatrics medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Yi Liu
- grid.13291.380000 0001 0807 1581Division of Rheumatism & Immunology, Rare Diseases Center, West Chia Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Wei Zhang
- grid.452223.00000 0004 1757 7615Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan China
| | - Li Yang
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Yong Peng
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Lunzhi Dai
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Hongbo Hu
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Yong Jiang
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Pathology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Yiguo Hu
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Jingqiang Zhu
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Laboratory of thyroid and parathyroid disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Hong Jiang
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Zhihui Li
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Thyroid and Parathyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Laboratory of thyroid and parathyroid disease, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
| | - Carlos Caulin
- grid.134563.60000 0001 2168 186XDepartment of Otolaryngology - Head & Neck Surgery and University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ USA
| | - Jihwan Park
- grid.61221.360000 0001 1033 9831School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Heng Xu
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Division of Laboratory Medicine/Research Centre of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China ,grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan China
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5
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Uzhachenko R, Shimamoto A, Chirwa SS, Ivanov SV, Ivanova AV, Shanker A. Mitochondrial Fus1/Tusc2 and cellular Ca2 + homeostasis: tumor suppressor, anti-inflammatory and anti-aging implications. Cancer Gene Ther 2022; 29:1307-1320. [PMID: 35181743 PMCID: PMC9576590 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-022-00434-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
FUS1/TUSC2 (FUSion1/TUmor Suppressor Candidate 2) is a tumor suppressor gene (TSG) originally described as a member of the TSG cluster from human 3p21.3 chromosomal region frequently deleted in lung cancer. Its role as a TSG in lung, breast, bone, and other cancers was demonstrated by several groups, but molecular mechanisms of its activities are starting to unveil lately. They suggest that Fus1-dependent mechanisms are relevant in etiologies of diseases beyond cancer, such as chronic inflammation, bacterial and viral infections, premature aging, and geriatric diseases. Here, we revisit the discovery of FUS1 gene in the context of tumor initiation and progression, and review 20 years of research into FUS1 functions and its molecular, structural, and biological aspects that have led to its use in clinical trials and gene therapy. We present a data-driven view on how interactions of Fus1 with the mitochondrial Ca2+ (mitoCa2+) transport machinery maintain cellular Ca2+ homeostasis and control cell apoptosis and senescence. This Fus1-mediated cellular homeostasis is at the crux of tumor suppressor, anti-inflammatory and anti-aging activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Uzhachenko
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Akiko Shimamoto
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, USA
- Vanderbilt Memory and Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Sanika S Chirwa
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Sergey V Ivanov
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Alla V Ivanova
- School of Graduate Studies and Research, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, USA.
| | - Anil Shanker
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Biology, Neuroscience and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Host-Tumor Interactions Research Program, Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Vanderbilt Institute for Infection, Immunology and Inflammation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Vanderbilt Memory and Alzheimer's Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
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6
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Xu DM, Li M, Lin SB, Yang ZL, Xu TY, Yang JH, Yin J. Comprehensive Analysis of Transcriptional Expression of hsa-mir-21 Predicted Target Genes and Immune Characteristics in Kidney Renal Clear Cell Carcinoma. Int J Med Sci 2022; 19:1482-1501. [PMID: 36035369 PMCID: PMC9413563 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.73404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: To uncover advanced prognosis biomarkers in patient with kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC), our study was the first to make a comprehensive analysis of hsa-mir-21 predicted target genes and explore the immune characteristics in KIRC. Methods: In this study, the comprehensive analysis of hsa-mir-21 predicted target genes and immune characteristics in KIRC were analyzed via TIMER2.0, UALCAN, Metascape, Kaplan-Meier plotter, Human Protein Atlas, CancerSEA, JASPAR, GEPIA, R package: GSVA package (version 1.34.0) & immune infiltration algorithm (ssGSEA) and R package: RMS package (version 6.2-0) & SURVIVAL package (version 3.2-10). Results: Up-transcriptional expressions of RP2, NFIA, SPRY1 were significantly associated with favorable prognosis in KIRC, whereas that of TGFBI was markedly significantly to unfavorable prognosis. Additionally, RP2, NFIA, SPRY1 and TGFBI were significantly relevant to the immune infiltration in KIRC. Finally, ZNF263 was a common predicted transcription factor of RP2, NFIA, SPRY1 and TGFBI, which can as an independent indicator for prognosis in KIRC patients. Conclusions: Hsa-mir-21 predicted target genes (RP2, NFIA, SPRY1 and TGFBI) and the common transcription factor ZNF263 could be the advanced prognosis biomarkers in KIRC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Ming Xu
- Department of Urological Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ming Li
- Department of Urological Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Shu-Bin Lin
- Department of Urological Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zheng-Liang Yang
- Department of Urological Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Teng-Yu Xu
- Department of Urological Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jin-Huan Yang
- Department of Urological Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jun Yin
- Department of Hematology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, Guangdong, China
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7
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Targeting EGFR in melanoma - The sea of possibilities to overcome drug resistance. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2022; 1877:188754. [PMID: 35772580 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2022.188754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 05/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma is considered one of the most aggressive skin cancers. It spreads and metastasizes quickly and is intrinsically resistant to most conventional chemotherapeutics, thereby presenting a challenge to researchers and clinicians searching for effective therapeutic strategies to treat patients with melanoma. The use of inhibitors of mutated serine/threonine-protein kinase B-RAF (BRAF), e.g., vemurafenib and dabrafenib, has revolutionized melanoma chemotherapy. Unfortunately, the response to these drugs lasts a limited time due to the development of acquired resistance. One of the proteins responsible for this process is epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). In this review, we summarize the role of EGFR signaling in the multidrug resistance of melanomas and discuss possible applications of EGFR inhibitors to overcome the development of drug resistance in melanoma cells during therapy.
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8
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Kozlov AP. Mammalian tumor-like organs. 2. Mammalian adipose has many tumor features and obesity is a tumor-like process. Infect Agent Cancer 2022; 17:15. [PMID: 35395810 PMCID: PMC8994355 DOI: 10.1186/s13027-022-00423-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In previous publications, the author developed the theory of carcino-evo-devo, which predicts that evolutionarily novel organs should recapitulate some features of tumors in their development. MAIN TEXT Mammalian adipose is currently recognized as a multi-depot metabolic and endocrine organ consisting of several adipose tissues. Although lipid-storing cells and proteins are ancient, the adipose organ as a whole is evolutionarily novel to mammals. The adipose expansion has remarkable similarities with the growth of solid tumors. These similarities are the following: (1) The capability to unlimited expansion; (2) Reversible plasticity; (3) Induction of angiogenesis; (4) Chronic inflammation; (5) Remodeling and disfunction; (6) Systemic influence on the organism; (7) Hormone production; (8) Production of miRNAs that influence other tissues; (9) Immunosuppression; (10) DNA damage and resistance to apoptosis; (11) Destructive infiltration in other organs and tissues. These similarities include the majority of "hallmarks of cancer". In addition, lipomas are the most frequent soft tissue tumors, and similar drugs may be used for the treatment of obesity and cancer by preventing infiltration. This raises the possibility that obesity, at least in part, may represent an oncological problem. The existing similarities between adipose and tumors suggest the possible evolutionary origin of mammalian adipose from some ancestral benign mesenchymal hereditary tumors. Indeed, using a transgenic inducible zebrafish tumor model, we described many genes, which originated in fish and were expressed in fish tumors. Their human orthologs LEP, NOTCH1, SPRY1, PPARG, ID2, and CIDEA acquired functions connected with the adipose organ. They are also involved in tumor development in humans. CONCLUSION If the hypothesis of the evolutionary origin of the adipose organ from the ancestral hereditary tumor is correct, it may open new opportunities to resolve the oncological problem and the problem of the obesity epidemic. New interventions targeting LEP, NOTCH1, SPRY1, PPARG, ID2, and CIDEA gene network, in addition to what already is going on, can be designed for treatment and prevention of both obesity and tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Kozlov
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 3, Gubkina Street, Moscow, Russia, 117971.
- Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 29, Polytekhnicheskaya Street, St. Petersburg, Russia, 195251.
- The Biomedical Center, 8, Viborgskaya Street, St. Petersburg, Russia, 194044.
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9
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Göktuna SI. IKBKE-driven TPL2 and MEK1 phosphorylations sustain constitutive ERK1/2 activation in tumor cells. EXCLI JOURNAL 2022; 21:436-453. [PMID: 35391917 PMCID: PMC8983855 DOI: 10.17179/excli2021-4578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
IKBKE have been associated with numerous cancers. As a result, IKBKE have emerged as potential target for cancer therapy. Accumulating evidence support that IKBKE orchestrate tumor cell survival in cancers. Here we evaluated the possible link between IKBKE and ERK phosphorylation. The effects of IKBKE silencing on MAPK activation in tumor vs. normal cells were evaluated via WB and RT-PCR. Ectopically expressed IKBKE, TPL2 or MEK1 constructs were used to examine the possible interactions among them via co-IP. In vitro kinase assays were performed to understand nature of the observed interactions. In tumors, IKBKE regulates MEK/ERK constitutive activations in vitro and in vivo. IKBKE and TPL2 physically interact and this interaction leads to TPL2 phosphorylation. We describe here a novel regulatory link between IKBKE and constitutive ERK1/2 activation in tumor cells. This new circuitry may be relevant for tumor cell survival in various malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serkan Ismail Göktuna
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey,National Nanotechnology Research Center (UNAM), Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey,Laboratory of Medical Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Genomics and Genoproteomics Research Center (GIGA), University of Liege, Liege, Belgium,*To whom correspondence should be addressed: Serkan Ismail Göktuna, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bilkent University, 06800 Bilkent, Ankara, Turkey, E-mail:
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10
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Lv G, Wang Y, Ji C, Shi C, Li Y. SPRY1 promotes cell proliferation and inhibits apoptosis by activating Hedgehog pathway in acute myeloid leukemia. Hematology 2021; 27:1-10. [PMID: 34957932 DOI: 10.1080/16078454.2021.2010330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to determine the biological function of Sprouty 1 (SPRY1) on acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and to investigate the potential mechanism. METHODS The expression of SPRY1 and the prognostic values of SPRY1 were assessed through the analysis of the Cancer Genome Atlas. Meanwhile, the expression of SPRY1 in AML cells was determined by qRT-PCR and western blot. Then, the biological function of SPRY1 on the proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis in K-562 and HL-60 cells were tested using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, colony-formation assay, 5-ethynyl-20-deoxyuridine assay and flow cytometry. Additionally, the protein expressions were measured by western blot. RESULTS We found that SPRY1 was markedly overexpressed in the cells of the patients with AML, and the patients with AML having a high SPRY1 expression has a bad prognosis. The proliferation and cell cycle progression in K-562 and HL-60 cells were notably promoted by SPRY1 overexpression, but inhibited by SPRY1 knockdown. Meanwhile, the apoptosis of K-562 and HL-60 cells was significantly repressed by SPRY1 overexpression and facilitated by SPRY1 knockdown. In addition, we found that SPRY1 overexpression significantly activated the Hedgehog pathway in AML cells. The function of SPRY1 on the proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis was reversed by Gli1 in K-562 and HL-60 cells. DISCUSSION Identifying new biomarkers and exploring the pathogenesis of AML is urgent to improve the disease surveillance for patients with AML. CONCLUSIONS SPRY1 could facilitate cell proliferation and cell cycle progression, and suppress cell apoptosis via activating the Hedgehog pathway in AML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiyang Lv
- Department of Hematology, Affiliated Qingdao Central Hospital, Qingdao University, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Department of Hematology, Affiliated Qingdao Central Hospital, Qingdao University, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - ChunXiao Ji
- Department of Hematology, Affiliated Qingdao Central Hospital, Qingdao University, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunlei Shi
- Department of Hematology, Affiliated Qingdao Central Hospital, Qingdao University, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Li
- Department of Hematology, Affiliated Qingdao Central Hospital, Qingdao University, Shandong, People's Republic of China
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11
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Biological Significance and Targeting of the FGFR Axis in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13225681. [PMID: 34830836 PMCID: PMC8616401 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13225681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary All cells within tissues and organ systems must communicate with each other to ensure they function in a coordinated manner. One form of communication is signalling mediated by small proteins (for example fibroblast growth factors; FGFs) that are secreted by one cell and bind to specialised receptors (for example FGF receptors) on nearby cells. These receptors propagate the signal to the nucleus of the receiving cell, which in turn dictates to the cell how it should react. FGFR signalling is versatile, tightly controlled and important for normal body homeostasis, facilitating growth, healing and replacing old cells. However, cancer cells can take command of this pathway and use it to their advantage. This review will first explain the biology of FGFR signalling and then describe how it can be corrupted, the implications in cancer, and how it can be targeted to improve cancer therapy. Abstract The pleiotropic effects of fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), the widespread expression of all seven signalling FGF receptors (FGFRs) throughout the body, and the dramatic phenotypes shown by many FGF/R knockout mice, highlight the diversity, complexity and functional importance of FGFR signalling. The FGF/R axis is critical during normal tissue development, homeostasis and repair. Therefore, it is not surprising that substantial evidence also pinpoints the involvement of aberrant FGFR signalling in disease, including tumourigenesis. FGFR aberrations in cancer include mutations, gene fusions, and amplifications as well as corrupted autocrine/paracrine loops. Indeed, many clinical trials on cancer are focusing on targeting the FGF/FGFR axis, using selective FGFR inhibitors, nonselective FGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, ligand traps, and monoclonal antibodies and some have already been approved for the treatment of cancer patients. The heterogeneous tumour microenvironment and complexity of FGFR signalling may be some of the factors responsible for the resistance or poor response to therapy with FGFR axis-directed therapeutic agents. In the present review we will focus on the structure and function of FGF(R)s, their common irregularities in cancer and the therapeutic value of targeting their function in cancer.
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12
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Lai X, Zhou J, Wessely A, Heppt M, Maier A, Berking C, Vera J, Zhang L. A disease network-based deep learning approach for characterizing melanoma. Int J Cancer 2021; 150:1029-1044. [PMID: 34716589 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.33860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Multiple types of genomic variations are present in cutaneous melanoma and some of the genomic features may have an impact on the prognosis of the disease. The access to genomics data via public repositories such as The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) allows for a better understanding of melanoma at the molecular level, therefore making characterization of substantial heterogeneity in melanoma patients possible. Here, we proposed an approach that integrates genomics data, a disease network, and a deep learning model to classify melanoma patients for prognosis, assess the impact of genomic features on the classification and provide interpretation to the impactful features. We integrated genomics data into a melanoma network and applied an autoencoder model to identify subgroups in TCGA melanoma patients. The model utilizes communities identified in the network to effectively reduce the dimensionality of genomics data into a patient score profile. Based on the score profile, we identified three patient subtypes that show different survival times. Furthermore, we quantified and ranked the impact of genomic features on the patient score profile using a machine-learning technique. Follow-up analysis of the top-ranking features provided us with the biological interpretation of them at both pathway and molecular levels, such as their mutation and interactome profiles in melanoma and their involvement in pathways associated with signaling transduction, immune system and cell cycle. Taken together, we demonstrated the ability of the approach to identify disease subgroups using a deep learning model that captures the most relevant information of genomics data in the melanoma network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Lai
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie, Erlangen, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jinfei Zhou
- College of Computer Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Anja Wessely
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie, Erlangen, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Markus Heppt
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie, Erlangen, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andreas Maier
- Pattern Recognition Lab, Department of Computer Science, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Carola Berking
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie, Erlangen, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Julio Vera
- Department of Dermatology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.,Deutsches Zentrum Immuntherapie, Erlangen, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Le Zhang
- College of Computer Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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