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Guo H, Hu Z, Yang X, Yuan Z, Wang M, Chen C, Xie L, Gao Y, Li W, Bai Y, Lin C. Smad4 regulates TGF-β1-mediated hedgehog activation to promote epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in pancreatic cancer cells by suppressing Gli1 activity. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2024; 23:1189-1200. [PMID: 38525105 PMCID: PMC10957521 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2024.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC) is an aggressive and metastatic gastrointestinal tumor with a poor prognosis. Persistent activation of the TGF-β/Smad signaling induces PC cell (PCC) invasion and infiltration via epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Hedgehog signaling is a crucial pathway for the development of PC via the transcription factors Gli1/2/3. This study aimed to investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms of action of hedgehog activation in TGF-β1-triggered EMT in PCCs (PANC-1 and BxPc-3). In addition, overexpression and shRNA techniques were used to evaluate the role of Smad4 in TGF-β1-treated PCCs. Our data showed that TGF-β1 promoted PCC invasion and infiltration via Smad2/3-dependent EMT. Hedgehog-Gli signaling axis in PCCs was activated upon TGF-β1 stimulation. Inhibition of hedgehog with cyclopamine effectively antagonized TGF-β1-induced EMT, thereby suggesting that the hedgehog signaling may act as a downstream cascade signaling of TGF-β1. As a key protein that assists the nuclear translocation of Smad2/3, Smad4 was highly expressed in PANC-1 cells, but not in BxPc-3 cells. Conversely, Gli1 expression was low in PANC-1 cells, but high in BxPc-3 cells. Furthermore, knockdown of Smad4 in PANC-1 cells by shRNA inhibited TGF-β1-mediated EMT and collagen deposition. Overexpression of Smad4 did not affect TGF-β1-mediated EMT due to the lack of significant increase in nuclear expression of Smad4. Importantly, Gli1 activity was upregulated by Smad4 knockdown in PANC-1 cells and downregulated by Smad4 overexpression in BxPc-3 cells, indicating that Gli1 may be a negative target protein downstream of Smad4. Thus, Smad4 regulates TGF-β1-mediated hedgehog activation to promote EMT in PCCs by suppressing Gli1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hangcheng Guo
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
- Sichuan Mianyang 404 Hospital, Mianyang 621000, China
| | - Zujian Hu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Xuejia Yang
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Ziwei Yuan
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Mengsi Wang
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Chaoyue Chen
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Lili Xie
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Yuanyuan Gao
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Wangjian Li
- Department of Urology, The Central Hospital Affiliated to Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312030, China
| | - Yongheng Bai
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Intelligent Cancer Biomarker Discovery and Translation, First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
- National Key Clinical Specialty (General Surgery), The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, China
| | - Chunjing Lin
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, China
- Medicine and Health Care Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, China
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2
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Shen D, Xia Y, Fu Y, Cao Q, Chen W, Zhu Y, Guo K, Sun L. Hedgehog pathway and cancer: A new area (Review). Oncol Rep 2024; 52:116. [PMID: 38994763 PMCID: PMC11267502 DOI: 10.3892/or.2024.8775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
In years of research on classical pathways, the composition, information transmission mechanism, crosstalk with other pathways, and physiological and pathological effects of hedgehog (HH) pathway have been gradually clarified. HH also plays a critical role in tumor formation and development. According to the update of interpretation of tumor phenotypes, the latest relevant studies have been sorted out, to explore the specific mechanism of HH pathway in regulating different tumor phenotypes through gene mutation and signal regulation. The drugs and natural ingredients involved in regulating HH pathway were also reviewed; five approved drugs and drugs under research exert efficacy by blocking HH pathway, and at least 22 natural components have potential to treat tumors by HH pathway. Nevertheless, there is a deficiency of existing studies. The present review confirmed the great potential of HH pathway in future cancer treatment with factual basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deyi Shen
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, P.R. China
| | - Yuwei Xia
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310053, P.R. China
| | - Yuhan Fu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, P.R. China
| | - Qiaochang Cao
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, P.R. China
| | - Wenqian Chen
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310053, P.R. China
| | - Ying Zhu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, P.R. China
| | - Kaibo Guo
- Department of Cancer Medicine, Affiliated Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, P.R. China
| | - Leitao Sun
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University (Zhejiang Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, P.R. China
- Academy of Chinese Medical Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310053, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310053, P.R. China
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3
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Hasan AM, Cavalu S, Saber S, Doghish AS, Hamad RS, Abdel-Reheim MA, Alghamdi M, Alamri MMS, Alfaifi J, Adam MIE, Alqarni AA, Rezigalla AA, Negm S, El-Kott AF, Alshehri AS, BinAfeef SF, Abdel-Ghany S, Attia MA, Mohammed OA. Hedgehog signaling mastery: R51211's promise in augmenting the therapeutic efficacy of sorafenib. Life Sci 2024; 351:122791. [PMID: 38848936 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Revised: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Sorafenib is a multikinase inhibitor employed for managing hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The emergence of sorafenib resistance presents an obstacle to its therapeutic efficacy. One notable approach to overcoming sorafenib resistance is the exploration of combination therapies. The role of hedgehog signaling in sorafenib resistance has been also examined in HCC. R51211, known as itraconazole, has been safely employed in clinical practice. Through in vitro and in vivo investigations, we assessed the potential of R51211 to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of sorafenib by inhibiting the hedgehog signaling. The zero-interaction potency synergy model demonstrated a synergistic interaction between R51211 and sorafenib, a phenomenon reversed by the action of a smoothened receptor agonist. This dual therapy exhibited an increased capacity to induce apoptosis, as evidenced by alterations in the Bax/BCL-2 ratio and caspase-3, along with a propensity to promote autophagy, as indicated by changes in BECN1, p62, and the LC3I/LC3II ratio. Furthermore, the combination therapy resulted in significant reductions in biomarkers associated with liver preneoplastic alterations, improved liver microstructure, and mitigated changes in liver function enzymes. The substantial decrease in hedgehog components (Shh, SMO, GLI1, and GLI2) following R51211 treatment appears to be a key factor contributing to the increased efficacy of sorafenib. In conclusion, our study highlights the potential of R51211 as an adjunct to sorafenib, introducing a new dimension to this combination therapy through the modulation of the hedgehog signaling pathway. Further investigations are essential to validate the therapeutic efficacy of this combined approach in inhibiting the development of liver cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandru Madalin Hasan
- Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, P-ta 1 Decembrie 10, 410087 Oradea, Romania.
| | - Simona Cavalu
- Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, P-ta 1 Decembrie 10, 410087 Oradea, Romania.
| | - Sameh Saber
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Delta University for Science and Technology, Gamasa 11152, Egypt.
| | - Ahmed S Doghish
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Badr University in Cairo (BUC), Badr City, Cairo 11829, Egypt; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Nasr City, Cairo 11231, Egypt.
| | - Rabab S Hamad
- Biological Sciences Department, College of Science, King Faisal University, Al Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia; Central Laboratory, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza 12411, Egypt.
| | - Mustafa Ahmed Abdel-Reheim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Shaqra University, Aldawadmi 11961, Saudi Arabia; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni Suef 62521, Egypt.
| | - Mushabab Alghamdi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Mohannad Mohammad S Alamri
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Jaber Alfaifi
- Department of Child Health, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Masoud I E Adam
- Department of Medical Education and Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Abdullah Ali Alqarni
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Assad Ali Rezigalla
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Sally Negm
- Department of Life Sciences, College of Science and Art Mahyel Aseer, King Khalid University, Abha 62529, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Attalla F El-Kott
- Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, 61421 Abha, Saudi Arabia; Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Damanhour University, Damanhour 22511, Egypt.
| | - Ali S Alshehri
- Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, 61421 Abha, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Shahad Fuad BinAfeef
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, College of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21421, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Sameh Abdel-Ghany
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Ibn Sina University for Medical Sciences, Amman 16197, Jordan.
| | - Mohammed A Attia
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, AlMaarefa University, Diriyiah, Riyadh 13713, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Osama A Mohammed
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt; Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia.
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4
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Zhang W, Lu J, Feng L, Xue H, Shen S, Lai S, Li P, Li P, Kuang J, Yang Z, Xu X. Sonic hedgehog-heat shock protein 90β axis promotes the development of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in mice. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1280. [PMID: 38342927 PMCID: PMC10859387 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45520-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Sonic hedgehog (SHH) and heat shock protein 90β (HSP90β) have been implicated in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) but their molecular mechanisms of action remain elusive. We find that HSP90β is a key SHH downstream molecule for promoting NASH process. In hepatocytes, SHH reduces HSP90β ubiquitylation through deubiquitylase USP31, thus preventing HSP90β degradation and promoting hepatic lipid synthesis. HSP90β significantly increases in NASH mouse model, leading to secretion of exosomes enriched with miR-28-5p. miR-28-5p directly targetes and decreases Rap1b levels, which in turn promotes NF-κB transcriptional activity in macrophages and stimulates the expression of inflammatory factors. Genetic deletion, pharmacological inhibition of the SHH-HSP90β axis, or delivery of miR-28-5p to macrophages in the male mice liver, impairs NASH symptomatic development. Importantly, there is a markedly higher abundance of miR-28-5p in NASH patient sera. Taken together, the SHH-HSP90β-miR-28-5p axis offers promising therapeutic targets against NASH, and serum miR-28-5p may serve as a NASH diagnostic biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weitao Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang, China; Center for Innovative Traditional Chinese Medicine Target and New Drug Research, International Institutes of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, Zhejiang, China
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Junfeng Lu
- First Department of Liver Disease, Beijing You'An Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, China
| | - Lianshun Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hanyue Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shiyang Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shuiqing Lai
- Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510080, China
| | - PingPing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Diabetes Research Center of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Ping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jian Kuang
- Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510080, China
| | - Zhiwei Yang
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) & Peking Union Medical Collage (PUMC), Beijing, 100021, PR China.
| | - Xiaojun Xu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, Zhejiang, China; Center for Innovative Traditional Chinese Medicine Target and New Drug Research, International Institutes of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, Zhejiang, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 210009, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
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5
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Liao T, Chen Y, Guo L, Zhu S, Zhan T, Lu X, Xu H, Hu Z, Hu J, Gu M, Liu X, Wang X, Hu S, Liu X. The NP protein of Newcastle disease virus dictates its oncolytic activity by regulating viral mRNA translation efficiency. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012027. [PMID: 38377149 PMCID: PMC10906838 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has been extensively studied as a promising oncolytic virus for killing tumor cells in vitro and in vivo in clinical trials. However, the viral components that regulate the oncolytic activity of NDV remain incompletely understood. In this study, we systematically compared the replication ability of different NDV genotypes in various tumor cells and identified NP protein determines the oncolytic activity of NDV. On the one hand, NDV strains with phenylalanine (F) at the 450th amino acid position of the NP protein (450th-F-NP) exhibit a loss of oncolytic activity. This phenotype is predominantly associated with genotype VII NDVs. In contrast, the NP protein with a leucine amino acid at this site in other genotypes (450th-L-NP) can facilitate the loading of viral mRNA onto ribosomes more effectively than 450th-F-NP. On the other hand, the NP protein from NDV strains that exhibit strong oncogenicity interacts with eIF4A1 within its 366-489 amino acid region, leading to the inhibition of cellular mRNA translation with a complex 5' UTR structure. Our study provide mechanistic insights into how highly oncolytic NDV strains selectively promote the translation of viral mRNA and will also facilitate the screening of oncolytic strains for oncolytic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianxing Liao
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Yu Chen
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Lili Guo
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Shanshan Zhu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Tiansong Zhan
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaolong Lu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Haixu Xu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Zenglei Hu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infections Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jiao Hu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infections Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Min Gu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaowen Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infections Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoquan Wang
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Shunlin Hu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infections Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiufan Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infections Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
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6
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Shi YB, Chen SY, Liu RB. The new insights into autophagy in thyroid cancer progression. J Transl Med 2023; 21:413. [PMID: 37355631 PMCID: PMC10290383 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04265-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, the incidence of thyroid cancer keeps growing at a shocking rate, which has aroused increasing concerns worldwide. Autophagy is a fundamental and ubiquitous biological event conserved in mammals including humans. Basically, autophagy is a catabolic process that cellular components including small molecules and damaged organelles are degraded for recycle to meet the energy needs, especially under the extreme conditions. The dysregulated autophagy has indicated to be involved in thyroid cancer progression. The enhancement of autophagy can lead to autophagic cell death during the degradation while the produced energies can be utilized by the rest of the cancerous tissue, thus this influence could be bidirectional, which plays either a tumor-suppressive or oncogenic role. Accordingly, autophagy can be suppressed by therapeutic agents and is thus regarded as a drug target for thyroid cancer treatments. In the present review, a brief description of autophagy and roles of autophagy in tumor context are given. We have addressed summary of the mechanisms and functions of autophagy in thyroid cancer. Some potential autophagy-targeted treatments are also summarized. The aim of the review is linking autophagy to thyroid cancer, so as to develop novel approaches to better control cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Bo Shi
- Department of Thyroid and Breast Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shu-Yuan Chen
- Department of Thyroid and Breast Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ren-Bin Liu
- Department of Thyroid and Breast Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
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7
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Li B, Yan YP, He YY, Liang C, Li MY, Wang Y, Yang ZM. IHH, SHH, and primary cilia mediate epithelial-stromal cross-talk during decidualization in mice. Sci Signal 2023; 16:eadd0645. [PMID: 36853961 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.add0645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
The establishment of pregnancy depends on interactions between the epithelial and stromal cells of the endometrium that drive the decidual reaction that remodels the stroma and enables embryo implantation. Decidualization in mice also depends on ovarian hormones and the presence of a blastocyst. Hedgehog signaling is transduced by primary cilia in many tissues and is involved in epithelial-stromal cross-talk during decidualization. We found that primary cilia on mouse uterine stromal cells increased in number and length during early pregnancy and were required for decidualization. In vitro and in vivo, progesterone promoted stromal ciliogenesis and the production of Indian hedgehog (IHH) in the epithelium and Sonic hedgehog (SHH) in the stroma. Blastocyst-derived TNF-α also induced epithelial IHH, which stimulated the production of SHH in the stroma through a mechanism that may involve the release of arachidonic acid from epithelial cells. In the stroma, SHH activated canonical Hedgehog signaling through primary cilia and promoted decidualization through a mechanism that depended on interleukin-11 (IL-11) and primary cilia. Our findings identify a primary cilia-dependent network that controls endometrial decidualization and suggest primary cilia as a candidate therapeutic target for endometrial diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction in the Plateau Mountain Region, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Ya-Ping Yan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yu-Ying He
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Chen Liang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Meng-Yuan Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Ying Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Zeng-Ming Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction in the Plateau Mountain Region, College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China.,College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
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8
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Wang J, Hu Y, Liu P, Xu X. Xanthine oxidoreductase mediates genotoxic drug-induced autophagy and apoptosis resistance by uric acid accumulation and TGF-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) activation. FASEB J 2023; 37:e22723. [PMID: 36583708 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202201436r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a highly conserved cellular process that profoundly impacts the efficacy of genotoxic chemotherapeutic drugs. TGF-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) is a serine/threonine kinase that activates several signaling pathways involved in inducing autophagy and suppressing cell death. Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is a rate-limiting enzyme that converts hypoxanthine to xanthine, and xanthine to uric acid and hydrogen peroxide in the purine catabolism pathway. Recent studies showed that uric acid can bind to TAK1 and prolong its activation. We hypothesized that genotoxic drugs may induce autophagy and apoptosis resistance by activating TAK1 through XOR-generated uric acid. Here, we report that gemcitabine and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), two genotoxic drugs, induced autophagy in HeLa and HT-29 cells by activating TAK1 and its two downstream kinases, AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) and c-Jun terminal kinase (JNK). XOR knockdown and the XOR inhibitor allopurinol blocked gemcitabine-induced TAK1, JNK, AMPK, and Unc51-like kinase 1 (ULK1)S555 phosphorylation and gemcitabine-induced autophagy. Inhibition of the ATM-Chk pathway, which inhibits genotoxic drug-induced uric acid production, blocked gemcitabine-induced autophagy by inhibiting TAK1 activation. Exogenous uric acid in its salt form, monosodium urate (MSU), induced autophagy by activating TAK1 and its downstream kinases JNK and AMPK. Gene knockdown or the inhibitors of these kinases blocked gemcitabine- and MSU-induced autophagy. Inhibition of autophagy by allopurinol, chloroquine, and 5Z-7-oxozeaenol (5Z), a TAK1-specific inhibitor, enhanced gemcitabine-induced apoptosis. Our study uncovers a previously unrecognized role of XOR in regulating genotoxic drug-induced autophagy and apoptosis and has implications for designing novel therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxiang Wang
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Yanhua Hu
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Penggang Liu
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiulong Xu
- Institute of Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
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9
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Gao H, Wang W, Li Q. GANT61 suppresses cell survival, invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition through inactivating AKT/mTOR and JAK/STAT3 pathways in anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. Cancer Biol Ther 2022; 23:369-377. [PMID: 35491899 PMCID: PMC9067515 DOI: 10.1080/15384047.2022.2051158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioma-associated oncogene (Gli) antagonist-61 (GANT61) not only suppresses the malignant behavior of several cancers but also presents synergistic effects with other anticancer agents on suppressing the progression of cancers, while relevant information is rare in anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC). This study aimed to explore the therapeutic effect of GANT61 in ATC and its molecular mechanism. ATC cells (8505C and CAL-62) were treated with GANT61, followed by detection of cell proliferation, apoptosis, invasion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers. Subsequently, RNA sequencing was performed to explore the potential downstream pathway. Following that, rescue experiments were conducted by SC79 (AKT activator) or colivelin (STAT3 activator) monotreatment or combined with GANT61 in ATC cells. GANT61 reduced Gli1 expression, suppressed proliferation at several time settings, promoted apoptosis, inhibited invasion and increased E-cadherin while decreased Vimentin and Snail expressions (EMT markers) in ATC cells. The subsequent RNA sequence identified 85 upregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 71 downregulated DEGs in GANT61-treated ATC cells, which were mainly enriched in PI3K/AKT, JAK/STAT, Hedgehog and mTOR pathways. Next, the inactivation of AKT/mTOR and JAK/STAT3 pathways by GANT61 treatment was verified by western blot. The following rescue experiments showed that SC79 or colivelin treatment promoted the malignant behaviors of ATC cells. More importantly, SC79 or colivelin treatment compensated the effect of GANT61 treatment on cell proliferation at several time settings and apoptosis, invasion, and part of that on EMT in ATC cells. GANT61 suppresses cell survival, invasion and EMT through inactivating AKT/mTOR or JAK/STAT3 pathways in ATC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoji Gao
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Weige Wang
- Medical Department, RIGEN Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Shanghai, China
| | - Qinyu Li
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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10
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Non-Apoptotic Programmed Cell Death in Thyroid Diseases. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15121565. [PMID: 36559016 PMCID: PMC9788139 DOI: 10.3390/ph15121565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid disorders are among the most common endocrinological conditions. As the prevalence of thyroid diseases increases annually, the exploration of thyroid disease mechanisms and the development of treatments are also gradually improving. With the gradual advancement of therapies, non-apoptotic programmed cell death (NAPCD) has immense potential in inflammatory and neoplastic diseases. Autophagy, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and immunogenic cell death are all classical NAPCD. In this paper, we have compiled the recent mechanistic investigations of thyroid diseases and established the considerable progress by NAPCD in thyroid diseases. Furthermore, we have elucidated the role of various types of NAPCD in different thyroid disorders. This will help us to better understand the pathophysiology of thyroid-related disorders and identify new targets and mechanisms of drug resistance, which may facilitate the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for patients with thyroid diseases. Here, we have reviewed the advances in the role of NAPCD in the occurrence, progression, and prognosis of thyroid diseases, and highlighted future research prospects in this area.
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11
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Wang J, Kan X, Li X, Sun J, Xu X. Porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) infection activates AMPK and JNK through TAK1 to induce autophagy and enhance virus replication. Virulence 2022; 13:1697-1712. [PMID: 36168145 PMCID: PMC9543055 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2022.2127192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy plays an important role in defending against invading microbes. However, numerous viruses can subvert autophagy to benefit their replication. Porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) is an aetiological agent that causes severe porcine epidemic diarrhoea. How PEDV infection regulates autophagy and its role in PEDV replication are inadequately understood. Herein, we report that PEDV induced complete autophagy in Vero and IPEC-DQ cells, as evidenced by increased LC3 lipidation, p62 degradation, and the formation of autolysosomes. The lysosomal protease inhibitors chloroquine (CQ) or bafilomycin A and Beclin-1 or ATG5 knockdown blocked autophagic flux and inhibited PEDV replication. PEDV infection activated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and c-Jun terminal kinase (JNK) by activating TGF-beta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1). Compound C (CC), an AMPK inhibitor, and SP600125, a JNK inhibitor, inhibited PEDV-induced autophagy and virus replication. AMPK activation led to increased ULK1S777 phosphorylation and activation. Inhibition of ULK1 activity by SBI-0206965 (SBI) and TAK1 activity by 5Z-7-Oxozeaenol (5Z) or by TAK1 siRNA led to the suppression of autophagy and virus replication. Our study provides mechanistic insights into PEDV-induced autophagy and how PEDV infection leads to JNK and AMPK activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxiang Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Xianjin Kan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Xiaomei Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Jing Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China.,Institute of Comparative Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
| | - Xiulong Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China.,Institute of Comparative Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
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12
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Zhou Q, He X, Zhao X, Fan Q, Lai S, Liu D, He H, He M. Ginsenoside Rg1 Ameliorates Acute Renal Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury via Upregulating AMPK α1 Expression. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:3737137. [PMID: 36092159 PMCID: PMC9458375 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3737137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Acute renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury often occurs during kidney transplantation and other kidney surgeries, and the molecular mechanism involves oxidative stress. We hypothesized that ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1), a saponin derived from ginseng, would protect the renal tissue against acute renal I/R injury by upregulating 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase α1 (AMPKα1) expression and inhibiting oxidative stress. The models of acute anoxia/reoxygenation (A/R) damage in normal rat kidney epithelial cell lines (NRK-52E) and acute renal I/R injury in mice were constructed. The results revealed that pretreatment with 25 μM Rg1 significantly increased NRK-52E viability, decreased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and apoptosis, suppressed reactive oxygen species generation and oxidative stress, stabilized mitochondrial membrane potential and reduced mitochondria permeability transition pore openness, decreased adenosine monophosphate/adenosine triphosphate ratio, and upregulated the expression of AMPKα1, cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 2, NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1 beta subcomplex subunit 8, and B-cell lymphoma 2, while downregulating BCL2-associated X protein expression. The effects of Rg1 pretreatment were similar to those of pAD/Flag-AMPKα1. After acute renal I/R injury, serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, LDH activity, and oxidative stress in renal tissue significantly increased. Rg1 pretreatment upregulated AMPKα1 expression, which protects against acute renal I/R injury by maintaining renal function homeostasis, inhibiting oxidative stress, and reducing apoptosis. Compound C, a specific inhibitor of AMPK, reversed the effects of Rg1. In summary, Rg1 pretreatment upregulated AMPKα1 expression, inhibited oxidative stress, maintained mitochondrial function, improved energy metabolism, reduced apoptosis, and ultimately protected renal tissue against acute renal I/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Zhou
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Jiangxi Academy of Clinical Medical Sciences, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Xinlan He
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology, Nanchang University School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhao
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology, Nanchang University School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Qigui Fan
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology, Nanchang University School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Songqing Lai
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Jiangxi Academy of Clinical Medical Sciences, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Dan Liu
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology, Nanchang University School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Huan He
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology, Nanchang University School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanchang 330006, China
| | - Ming He
- Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Jiangxi Academy of Clinical Medical Sciences, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330006, China
- Jiangxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology, Nanchang University School of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanchang 330006, China
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13
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Jinesh GG, Brohl AS. Classical epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and alternative cell death process-driven blebbishield metastatic-witch (BMW) pathways to cancer metastasis. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:296. [PMID: 35999218 PMCID: PMC9399134 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01132-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastasis is a pivotal event that accelerates the prognosis of cancer patients towards mortality. Therapies that aim to induce cell death in metastatic cells require a more detailed understanding of the metastasis for better mitigation. Towards this goal, we discuss the details of two distinct but overlapping pathways of metastasis: a classical reversible epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (hybrid-EMT)-driven transport pathway and an alternative cell death process-driven blebbishield metastatic-witch (BMW) transport pathway involving reversible cell death process. The knowledge about the EMT and BMW pathways is important for the therapy of metastatic cancers as these pathways confer drug resistance coupled to immune evasion/suppression. We initially discuss the EMT pathway and compare it with the BMW pathway in the contexts of coordinated oncogenic, metabolic, immunologic, and cell biological events that drive metastasis. In particular, we discuss how the cell death environment involving apoptosis, ferroptosis, necroptosis, and NETosis in BMW or EMT pathways recruits immune cells, fuses with it, migrates, permeabilizes vasculature, and settles at distant sites to establish metastasis. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic targets that are common to both EMT and BMW pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goodwin G Jinesh
- Department of Molecular Oncology, 12902 USF Magnolia Drive, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, 33612, FL, USA. .,Sarcoma Department, 12902 USF Magnolia Drive, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, 33612, FL, USA.
| | - Andrew S Brohl
- Department of Molecular Oncology, 12902 USF Magnolia Drive, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, 33612, FL, USA. .,Sarcoma Department, 12902 USF Magnolia Drive, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute, Tampa, 33612, FL, USA.
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14
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Oh JM, Rajendran RL, Gangadaran P, Hong CM, Jeong JH, Lee J, Ahn BC. Targeting GLI1 Transcription Factor for Restoring Iodine Avidity with Redifferentiation in Radioactive-Iodine Refractory Thyroid Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14071782. [PMID: 35406554 PMCID: PMC8997411 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14071782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Thyroid cancers have an excellent prognosis by standard therapy of surgery followed by radioactive-iodine therapy. However, metastatic thyroid cancers do not response to radioactive-iodine therapy by losing iodine avidity. Therefore, reversing iodine avidity to metastatic thyroid cancers gives a new chance of applying radioactive-iodine therapy to the cancers. In the current study, we found that GLI1 knockdown can revert iodine non-avid thyroid cancers to iodine avid cancers by increasing expression of thyroid-specific proteins. Restoration of iodine avidity in thyroid cancers makes the cancers sensitive to radioactive-iodine therapy again. Therefore, the GLI1 can be a potential therapeutic target of radioactive-iodine resistant thyroid cancers. Abstract Radioactive-iodine (RAI) therapy is the mainstay for patients with recurrent and metastatic thyroid cancer. However, many patients exhibit dedifferentiation characteristics along with lack of sodium iodide symporter (NIS) functionality, low expression of thyroid-specific proteins, and poor RAI uptake, leading to poor prognosis. Previous studies have demonstrated the effect of GLI family zinc finger 1 (GLI1) inhibition on tumor growth and apoptosis. In this study, we investigated the role of GLI1 in the context of redifferentiation and improvement in the efficacy of RAI therapy for thyroid cancer. We evaluated GLI1 expression in several thyroid cancer cell lines and selected TPC-1 and SW1736 cell lines showing the high expression of GLI. We performed GLI1 knockdown and evaluated the changes of thyroid-specific proteins expression, RAI uptake and I-131-mediated cytotoxicity. The effect of GANT61 (GLI1 inhibitor) on endogenous NIS expression was also assessed. Endogenous NIS expression upregulated by inhibiting GLI1, in addition, increased expression level in plasma membrane. Also, GLI1 knockdown increased expression of thyroid-specific proteins. Restoration of thyroid-specific proteins increased RAI uptake and I-131-mediated cytotoxic effect. Treatment with GANT61 also increased expression of endogenous NIS. Targeting GLI1 can be a potential strategy with redifferentiation for restoring RAI avidity in dedifferentiated thyroid cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Min Oh
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea; (J.M.O.); (R.L.R.); (P.G.); (C.M.H.); (J.L.)
| | - Ramya Lakshmi Rajendran
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea; (J.M.O.); (R.L.R.); (P.G.); (C.M.H.); (J.L.)
| | - Prakash Gangadaran
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea; (J.M.O.); (R.L.R.); (P.G.); (C.M.H.); (J.L.)
- BK21 FOUR KNU Convergence Educational Program of Biomedical Sciences for Creative Future Talents, Department of Biomedical Science, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea
| | - Chae Moon Hong
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea; (J.M.O.); (R.L.R.); (P.G.); (C.M.H.); (J.L.)
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41944, Korea; zzu--@hanmail.net
| | - Ju Hye Jeong
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41944, Korea; zzu--@hanmail.net
| | - Jaetae Lee
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea; (J.M.O.); (R.L.R.); (P.G.); (C.M.H.); (J.L.)
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41944, Korea; zzu--@hanmail.net
| | - Byeong-Cheol Ahn
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea; (J.M.O.); (R.L.R.); (P.G.); (C.M.H.); (J.L.)
- BK21 FOUR KNU Convergence Educational Program of Biomedical Sciences for Creative Future Talents, Department of Biomedical Science, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu 41944, Korea; zzu--@hanmail.net
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-53-420-5583
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