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Xu H, Chen X, Sun Y, Hu X, Zhang X, Wang Y, Tang Q, Zhu Q, Song K, Chen H, Sheng X, Yao Y, Zhuang D, Chen L, Mao Y, Qin Z. Comprehensive molecular characterization of long-term glioblastoma survivors. Cancer Lett 2024; 593:216938. [PMID: 38734160 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2024.216938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Fewer than 5 % glioblastoma (GBM) patients survive over five years and are termed long-term survivors (LTS), yet their molecular background is unclear. The present cohort included 72 isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH)-wildtype GBM patients, consisting of 35 LTS and 37 short-term survivors (STS), and we employed whole exome sequencing, RNA-seq and DNA methylation array to delineate this largest LTS cohort to date. Although LTS and STS demonstrated analogous clinical characters and classical GBM biomarkers, CASC5 (P = 0.002) and SPEN (P = 0.013) mutations were enriched in LTS, whereas gene-to-gene fusions were concentrated in STS (P = 0.007). Importantly, LTS exhibited higher tumor mutation burden (P < 0.001) and copy number (CN) increase (P = 0.013), but lower mutant-allele tumor heterogeneity score (P < 0.001) and CN decrease (P = 0.026). Additionally, LTS demonstrated hypermethylated genome (P < 0.001) relative to STS. Differentially expressed and methylated genes both enriched in olfactory transduction. Further, analysis of the tumor microenvironment revealed higher infiltration of M1 macrophages (P = 0.043), B cells (P = 0.016), class-switched memory B cells (P = 0.002), central memory CD4+ T cells (P = 0.031) and CD4+ Th1 cells (P = 0.005) in LTS. We also separately analyzed a subset of patients who were methylation class-defined GBM, contributing 70.8 % of the entire cohort, and obtained similar results relative to prior analyses. Finally, we demonstrated that LTS and STS could be distinguished using a subset of molecular features. Taken together, the present study delineated unique molecular attributes of LTS GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinyu Chen
- Department of Breast and Urologic Medical Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Sun
- GenomiCare Biotechnology (Shanghai) Co. Ltd., Shanghai, China; Department of Data Science, Shanghai CreateCured Biotechnology Co. Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaomu Hu
- Department of Pathology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuan Zhang
- GenomiCare Biotechnology (Shanghai) Co. Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Ye Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China
| | - Qisheng Tang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiongji Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China
| | - Kun Song
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Chen
- Department of Pathology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaofang Sheng
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yu Yao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongxiao Zhuang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China
| | - Lingchao Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China.
| | - Ying Mao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China.
| | - Zhiyong Qin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China.
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Yang H, Zhang D, Yuan Z, Qiao H, Xia Z, Cao F, Lu Y, Jiang F. Novel 4-Aryl-4H-chromene derivative displayed excellent in vivo anti-glioblastoma efficacy as the microtubule-targeting agent. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 267:116205. [PMID: 38350361 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
In this study, a series of novel 4-Aryl-4H-chromene derivatives (D1-D31) were designed and synthesized by integrating quinoline heterocycle to crolibulin template molecule based on the strategy of molecular hybridization. One of these compounds D19 displayed positive antiproliferative activity against U87 cancer cell line (IC50 = 0.90 ± 0.03 μM). Compound D19 was verified as the microtubule-targeting agent through downregulating tubulin related genes of U87 cells, destroying the cytoskeleton of tubulins and interacting with the colchicine-binding site to inhibit the polymerization of tubulins by transcriptome analysis, immune-fluorescence staining, microtubule dynamics and EBI competition assays as well as molecular docking simulations. Moreover, compound D19 induced G2/M phase arrest, resulted in cell apoptosis and inhibited the migration of U87 cells by flow cytometry analysis and wound healing assays. Significantly, compound D19 dose-dependently inhibited the tumor growth of orthotopic glioma xenografts model (GL261-Luc) and effectively prolonged the survival time of mice, which were extremely better than those of positive drug temozolomide (TMZ). Compound D19 exhibited potent in vivo antivascular activity as well as no observable toxicity. Furthermore, the results of in silico simulation studies and P-gp transwell assays verified the positive correlation between compound D19's Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) permeability and its in vivo anti-GBM activity. Overall, compound D19 can be used as a promising anti-GBM lead compound for the treatment of glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyi Yang
- School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Dongyu Zhang
- School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Ziyang Yuan
- School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Haishi Qiao
- School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Zhuolu Xia
- School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Feng Cao
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
| | - Yuanyuan Lu
- School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
| | - Feng Jiang
- School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
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Boulos JC, Omer EA, Rigano D, Formisano C, Chatterjee M, Leich E, Klauck SM, Shan LT, Efferth T. Cynaropicrin disrupts tubulin and c-Myc-related signaling and induces parthanatos-type cell death in multiple myeloma. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2023; 44:2265-2281. [PMID: 37344563 PMCID: PMC10618500 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-023-01117-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The majority of blood malignancies is incurable and has unforeseeable remitting-relapsing paths in response to different treatments. Cynaropicrin, a natural sesquiterpene lactone from the edible parts of the artichoke plant, has gained increased attention as a chemotherapeutic agent. In this study, we investigated the effects of cynaropicrin against multiple myeloma (MM) cells in vitro and assessed its in vivo effectiveness in a xenograft tumor zebrafish model. We showed that cynaropicrin exerted potent cytotoxicity against a panel of nine MM cell lines and two leukemia cell lines with AMO1 being the most sensitive cell line (IC50 = 1.8 ± 0.3 µM). Cynaropicrin (0.8, 1.9, 3.6 µM) dose-dependently reduced c-Myc expression and transcriptional activity in AMO1 cells that was associated with significant downregulation of STAT3, AKT, and ERK1/2. Cell cycle analysis showed that cynaropicrin treatment arrested AMO1 cells in the G2M phase along with an increase in the sub-G0G1 phase after 24 h. With prolonged treatment times, cells accumulated more in the sub-G0G1 phase, implying cell death. Using confocal microscopy, we revealed that cynaropicrin disrupted the microtubule network in U2OS cells stably expressing α-tubulin-GFP. Furthermore, we revealed that cynaropicrin promoted DNA damage in AMO1 cells leading to PAR polymer production by PARP1 hyperactivation, resulting in AIF translocation from the mitochondria to the nucleus and subsequently to a novel form of cell death, parthanatos. Finally, we demonstrated that cynaropicrin (5, 10 µM) significantly reduced tumor growth in a T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) xenograft zebrafish model. Taken together, these results demonstrate that cynaropicrin causes potent inhibition of hematopoietic tumor cells in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joelle C Boulos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Ejlal A Omer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Daniela Rigano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Carmen Formisano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Manik Chatterjee
- University Hospital Würzburg, Translational Oncology, Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ellen Leich
- Julius Maximilian University, Institute of Pathology, Würzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, Translational Oncology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sabine M Klauck
- Division of Cancer Genome Research, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Le-Tian Shan
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, 310053, China
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, 55128, Mainz, Germany.
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Fang H, Zhang Y, Lin C, Sun Z, Wen W, Sheng H, Lin J. Primary microcephaly gene CENPE is a novel biomarker and potential therapeutic target for non-WNT/non-SHH medulloblastoma. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1227143. [PMID: 37593739 PMCID: PMC10427915 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1227143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Non-WNT/non-SHH medulloblastoma (MB) is one of the subtypes with the highest genetic heterogeneity in MB, and its current treatment strategies have unsatisfactory results and significant side effects. As a member of the centromere protein (CENP) family, centromeric protein E (CENPE) is a microtubule plus-end-directed kinetochore protein. Heterozygous mutations in CENPE can leads to primary microcephaly syndrome. It has been reported that CENPE is upregulated in MB, but its role in MB development is still unknown. Methods We downloaded the relevant RNA seq data and matched clinical information from the GEO database. Bioinformatics analysis includes differential gene expression analysis, Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, nomogram analysis, ROC curve analysis, immune cell infiltration analysis, and gene function enrichment analysis. Moreover, the effects of CENPE expression on cell proliferation, cell cycle, and p53 signaling pathway of non-WNT/non-SHH MB were validated using CENPE specific siRNA in vitro experiments. Results Compared with normal tissues, CENPE was highly expressed in MB tissues and served as an independent prognostic factor for survival in non-WNT/non-SHH MB patients. The nomogram analysis and ROC curve further confirmed these findings. At the same time, immune cell infiltration analysis showed that CENPE may participate in the immune response and tumor microenvironment (TME) of non-WNT/non-SHH MB. In addition, gene enrichment analysis showed that CENPE was closely related to the cell cycle and p53 pathway in non-WNT/non-SHH MB. In vitro experimental validation showed that knockdown of CENPE inhibited cell proliferation by activating the p53 signaling pathway and blocking the cell cycle. Conclusion The expression of CENPE in non-WNT/non-SHH MB was positively correlated with poor prognosis. CENPE may affect tumor progression by regulating cell cycle, p53 pathway, and immune infiltration. Hence, CENPE is highly likely a novel biomarker and potential therapeutic target for non-WNT/non-SHH MB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huangyi Fang
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yusong Zhang
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Surgery, The First People’s Hospital of Jiashan, Jiaxing, China
| | | | - Zhenkai Sun
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Wei Wen
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Hansong Sheng
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Jian Lin
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology Diseases of Wenzhou, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
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Iegiani G, Ferraro A, Pallavicini G, Di Cunto F. The impact of TP53 activation and apoptosis in primary hereditary microcephaly. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1220010. [PMID: 37457016 PMCID: PMC10338886 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1220010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Autosomal recessive primary microcephaly (MCPH) is a constellation of disorders that share significant brain size reduction and mild to moderate intellectual disability, which may be accompanied by a large variety of more invalidating clinical signs. Extensive neural progenitor cells (NPC) proliferation and differentiation are essential to determine brain final size. Accordingly, the 30 MCPH loci mapped so far (MCPH1-MCPH30) encode for proteins involved in microtubule and spindle organization, centriole biogenesis, nuclear envelope, DNA replication and repair, underscoring that a wide variety of cellular processes is required for sustaining NPC expansion during development. Current models propose that altered balance between symmetric and asymmetric division, as well as premature differentiation, are the main mechanisms leading to MCPH. Although studies of cellular alterations in microcephaly models have constantly shown the co-existence of high DNA damage and apoptosis levels, these mechanisms are less considered as primary factors. In this review we highlight how the molecular and cellular events produced by mutation of the majority of MCPH genes may converge on apoptotic death of NPCs and neurons, via TP53 activation. We propose that these mechanisms should be more carefully considered in the alterations of the sophisticated equilibrium between proliferation, differentiation and death produced by MCPH gene mutations. In consideration of the potential druggability of cell apoptotic pathways, a better understanding of their role in MCPH may significantly facilitate the development of translational approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Iegiani
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessia Ferraro
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
| | - Gianmarco Pallavicini
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
| | - Ferdinando Di Cunto
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
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Pallavicini G, Iegiani G, Parolisi R, Ferraro A, Garello F, Bitonto V, Terreno E, Gai M, Di Cunto F. Lestaurtinib inhibits Citron kinase activity and medulloblastoma growth through induction of DNA damage, apoptosis and cytokinesis failure. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1202585. [PMID: 37404750 PMCID: PMC10315473 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1202585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Medulloblastoma (MB), the most common malignant pediatric brain tumor, is currently treated with surgery followed by radiation and chemotherapy, which is accompanied by severe side effects, raising the need for innovative therapies. Disruption of the microcephaly-related gene Citron kinase (CITK) impairs the expansion of xenograft models as well as spontaneous MB arising in transgenic mice. No specific CITK inhibitors are available. Methods Lestaurtinib, a Staurosporine derivative also known as CEP-701, inhibits CITK with IC50 of 90 nM. We therefore tested the biological effects of this molecule on different MB cell lines, as well as in vivo, injecting the drug in MBs arising in SmoA1 transgenic mice. Results Similar to CITK knockdown, treatment of MB cells with 100 nM Lestaurtinib reduces phospho-INCENP levels at the midbody and leads to late cytokinesis failure. Moreover, Lestaurtinib impairs cell proliferation through CITK-sensitive mechanisms. These phenotypes are accompanied by accumulation of DNA double strand breaks, cell cycle block and TP53 superfamily activation in vitro and in vivo. Lestaurtinib treatment reduces tumor growth and increases mice survival. Discussion Our data indicate that Lestaurtinib produces in MB cells poly-pharmacological effects extending beyond the inhibition of its validated targets, supporting the possibility of repositioning this drug for MB treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianmarco Pallavicini
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Giorgia Iegiani
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Roberta Parolisi
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessia Ferraro
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Francesca Garello
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Valeria Bitonto
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Enzo Terreno
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Marta Gai
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Ferdinando Di Cunto
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi, Turin, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience ‘Rita Levi Montalcini’, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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Yang J, Luly KM, Green JJ. Nonviral nanoparticle gene delivery into the CNS for neurological disorders and brain cancer applications. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 15:e1853. [PMID: 36193561 PMCID: PMC10023321 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 03/15/2023]
Abstract
Nonviral nanoparticles have emerged as an attractive alternative to viral vectors for gene therapy applications, utilizing a range of lipid-based, polymeric, and inorganic materials. These materials can either encapsulate or be functionalized to bind nucleic acids and protect them from degradation. To effectively elicit changes to gene expression, the nanoparticle carrier needs to undergo a series of steps intracellularly, from interacting with the cellular membrane to facilitate cellular uptake to endosomal escape and nucleic acid release. Adjusting physiochemical properties of the nanoparticles, such as size, charge, and targeting ligands, can improve cellular uptake and ultimately gene delivery. Applications in the central nervous system (CNS; i.e., neurological diseases, brain cancers) face further extracellular barriers for a gene-carrying nanoparticle to surpass, with the most significant being the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Approaches to overcome these extracellular challenges to deliver nanoparticles into the CNS include systemic, intracerebroventricular, intrathecal, and intranasal administration. This review describes and compares different biomaterials for nonviral nanoparticle-mediated gene therapy to the CNS and explores challenges and recent preclinical and clinical developments in overcoming barriers to nanoparticle-mediated delivery to the brain. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Neurological Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Yang
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Ophthalmology, Oncology, Neurosurgery, Materials Science & Engineering, and Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kathryn M Luly
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Ophthalmology, Oncology, Neurosurgery, Materials Science & Engineering, and Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jordan J Green
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Ophthalmology, Oncology, Neurosurgery, Materials Science & Engineering, and Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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