1
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Tagoe DNA, Ribeiro E Silva A, Drozda AA, Coppens I, Coleman BI, Gubbels MJ. Toxoplasma FER1 is a versatile and dynamic mediator of differential microneme trafficking and microneme exocytosis. Sci Rep 2024; 14:21819. [PMID: 39294204 PMCID: PMC11410953 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-72628-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a polarized cell concentrating several secretory organelles at the apical pole. The secretory micronemes come in two sub-populations differentiated by dependence on Rab5A/C in their biogenesis. Calcium-dependent exocytosis of micronemes occurs at the very apical tip and is critical for parasite egress from its host cell, adhesion and invasion of the next cell. Ferlins represent a protein family with roles in exocytosis containing multiple Ca2+-sensing C2 domains. We determined that T. gondii's ferlin 1 (FER1) localized dynamically to the parasite's secretory pathway. FER1 function was dissected by dominant negative overexpression strategies. We demonstrated that FER1 traffics microneme organelles along the following trajectories: (1) Along the cortex to the apical end; (2) To the apical tip for fusion with the plasma membrane; (3) Differential microneme sub-population traffic, and that FER1 could putatively be responsible for microneme protein trafficking. (4) From the trans-Golgi-endosomal network to the subpellicular cortex; (5) Retrograde transport allowing microneme recycling from mother to daughter. Finally, FER1 overexpression triggers a microneme exocytosis burst, supporting the notion that the radially organized micronemes at the apical tip comprise a readily-releasable microneme pool. In summary, FER1 is pivotal for dynamic microneme trafficking, acts differently on the two microneme subpopulations, and acts on the plasma membrane fusion step during microneme exocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel N A Tagoe
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
- CANbridge Pharmaceuticals Inc., Burlington, MA, USA
| | | | - Allison A Drozda
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
- KromaTiD, Longmont, CO, USA
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Bradley I Coleman
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA
- Flagship Pioneering, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Marc-Jan Gubbels
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, 02467, USA.
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2
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Hvorecny KL, Sladewski TE, De La Cruz EM, Kollman JM, Heaslip AT. Toxoplasma gondii actin filaments are tuned for rapid disassembly and turnover. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1840. [PMID: 38418447 PMCID: PMC10902351 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46111-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The cytoskeletal protein actin plays a critical role in the pathogenicity of the intracellular parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, mediating invasion and egress, cargo transport, and organelle inheritance. Advances in live cell imaging have revealed extensive filamentous actin networks in the Apicomplexan parasite, but there are conflicting data regarding the biochemical and biophysical properties of Toxoplasma actin. Here, we imaged the in vitro assembly of individual Toxoplasma actin filaments in real time, showing that native, unstabilized filaments grow tens of microns in length. Unlike skeletal muscle actin, Toxoplasma filaments intrinsically undergo rapid treadmilling due to a high critical concentration, fast monomer dissociation, and rapid nucleotide exchange. Cryo-EM structures of jasplakinolide-stabilized and native (i.e. unstabilized) filaments show an architecture like skeletal actin, with differences in assembly contacts in the D-loop that explain the dynamic nature of the filament, likely a conserved feature of Apicomplexan actin. This work demonstrates that evolutionary changes at assembly interfaces can tune the dynamic properties of actin filaments without disrupting their conserved structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelli L Hvorecny
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Thomas E Sladewski
- Department of Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Enrique M De La Cruz
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Justin M Kollman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Aoife T Heaslip
- Department of Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA.
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3
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Reber S, Singer M, Frischknecht F. Cytoskeletal dynamics in parasites. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2024; 86:102277. [PMID: 38048658 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2023.102277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Cytoskeletal dynamics are essential for cellular homeostasis and development for both metazoans and protozoans. The function of cytoskeletal elements in protozoans can diverge from that of metazoan cells, with microtubules being more stable and actin filaments being more dynamic. This is particularly striking in protozoan parasites that evolved to enter metazoan cells. Here, we review recent progress towards understanding cytoskeletal dynamics in protozoan parasites, with a focus on divergent properties compared to classic model organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Reber
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117 Berlin, Germany; University of Applied Sciences Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mirko Singer
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical Faculty, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, DZIF Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Medical Faculty, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, DZIF Partner Site Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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4
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Houngue R, Sangaré LO, Alayi TD, Dieng A, Bitard-Feildel T, Boulogne C, Slomianny C, Atindehou CM, Fanou LA, Hathout Y, Callebaut I, Tomavo S. Toxoplasma membrane inositol phospholipid binding protein TgREMIND is essential for secretory organelle function and host infection. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113601. [PMID: 38157297 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites possess specialized secretory organelles called rhoptries, micronemes, and dense granules that play a vital role in host infection. In this study, we demonstrate that TgREMIND, a protein found in Toxoplasma gondii, is necessary for the biogenesis of rhoptries and dense granules. TgREMIND contains a Fes-CIP4 homology-Bin/Amphiphysin/Rvs (F-BAR) domain, which binds to membrane phospholipids, as well as a novel uncharacterized domain that we have named REMIND (regulator of membrane-interacting domain). Both the F-BAR domain and the REMIND are crucial for TgREMIND functions. When TgREMIND is depleted, there is a significant decrease in the abundance of dense granules and abnormal transparency of rhoptries, leading to a reduction in protein secretion from these organelles. The absence of TgREMIND inhibits host invasion and parasite dissemination, demonstrating that TgREMIND is essential for the proper function of critical secretory organelles required for successful infection by Toxoplasma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigue Houngue
- Université Paris Saclay, CNRS UMR 9198-CEA, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91190 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Lamba Omar Sangaré
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Tchilabalo Dilezitoko Alayi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Binghamton University-SUNY, Johnson City, NY 13790, USA
| | - Aissatou Dieng
- Université Paris Saclay, CNRS UMR 9198-CEA, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91190 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Tristan Bitard-Feildel
- Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR CNRS 7590, Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, IMPMC, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Claire Boulogne
- Université Paris Saclay, CNRS UMR 9198-CEA, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91190 Gif sur Yvette, France; Plateforme Imagerie-Gif, Institut de Biologie Intégrative de la Cellule (I2BC), 91190 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Christian Slomianny
- University of Lille, Laboratory of Cell Physiology, INSERM U 1003, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Cynthia Menonve Atindehou
- Université d'Abomey Calavi, Laboratoire de Biochimie et de Biologie Moléculaire, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Cotonou, Bénin
| | - Lucie Ayi Fanou
- Université d'Abomey Calavi, Laboratoire de Biochimie et de Biologie Moléculaire, Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Cotonou, Bénin
| | - Yetrib Hathout
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Binghamton University-SUNY, Johnson City, NY 13790, USA
| | - Isabelle Callebaut
- Sorbonne Université, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR CNRS 7590, Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, IMPMC, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Stanislas Tomavo
- Université Paris Saclay, CNRS UMR 9198-CEA, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91190 Gif sur Yvette, France.
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5
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Hvorecny KL, Sladewski TE, De La Cruz EM, Kollman JM, Heaslip AT. Toxoplasma gondii actin filaments are tuned for rapid disassembly and turnover. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.29.555340. [PMID: 37693530 PMCID: PMC10491163 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.29.555340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
The cytoskeletal protein actin plays a critical role in the pathogenicity of Toxoplasma gondii, mediating invasion and egress, cargo transport, and organelle inheritance. Advances in live cell imaging have revealed extensive filamentous actin networks in the Apicomplexan parasite, but there is conflicting data regarding the biochemical and biophysical properties of Toxoplasma actin. Here, we imaged the in vitro assembly of individual Toxoplasma actin filaments in real time, showing that native, unstabilized filaments grow tens of microns in length. Unlike skeletal muscle actin, Toxoplasma filaments intrinsically undergo rapid treadmilling due to a high critical concentration, fast monomer dissociation, and rapid nucleotide exchange. Cryo-EM structures of stabilized and unstabilized filaments show an architecture like skeletal actin, with differences in assembly contacts in the D-loop that explain the dynamic nature of the filament, likely a conserved feature of Apicomplexan actin. This work demonstrates that evolutionary changes at assembly interfaces can tune dynamic properties of actin filaments without disrupting their conserved structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelli L Hvorecny
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Thomas E Sladewski
- Department of Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Enrique M De La Cruz
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Justin M Kollman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Aoife T Heaslip
- Department of Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
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6
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Koreny L, Mercado-Saavedra BN, Klinger CM, Barylyuk K, Butterworth S, Hirst J, Rivera-Cuevas Y, Zaccai NR, Holzer VJC, Klingl A, Dacks JB, Carruthers VB, Robinson MS, Gras S, Waller RF. Stable endocytic structures navigate the complex pellicle of apicomplexan parasites. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2167. [PMID: 37061511 PMCID: PMC10105704 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37431-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites have immense impacts on humanity, but their basic cellular processes are often poorly understood. Where endocytosis occurs in these cells, how conserved this process is with other eukaryotes, and what the functions of endocytosis are across this phylum are major unanswered questions. Using the apicomplexan model Toxoplasma, we identified the molecular composition and behavior of unusual, fixed endocytic structures. Here, stable complexes of endocytic proteins differ markedly from the dynamic assembly/disassembly of these machineries in other eukaryotes. We identify that these endocytic structures correspond to the 'micropore' that has been observed throughout the Apicomplexa. Moreover, conserved molecular adaptation of this structure is seen in apicomplexans including the kelch-domain protein K13 that is central to malarial drug-resistance. We determine that a dominant function of endocytosis in Toxoplasma is plasma membrane homeostasis, rather than parasite nutrition, and that these specialized endocytic structures originated early in infrakingdom Alveolata likely in response to the complex cell pellicle that defines this medically and ecologically important ancient eukaryotic lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludek Koreny
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | | | - Christen M Klinger
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | | | - Simon Butterworth
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Jennifer Hirst
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Yolanda Rivera-Cuevas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Nathan R Zaccai
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Victoria J C Holzer
- Plant Development, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, 82152, Germany
| | - Andreas Klingl
- Plant Development, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, 82152, Germany
| | - Joel B Dacks
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, 370 05, Czech Republic
| | - Vern B Carruthers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Margaret S Robinson
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Simon Gras
- Experimental Parasitology, Department for Veterinary Sciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, 82152, Germany.
| | - Ross F Waller
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK.
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7
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Gui L, O'Shaughnessy WJ, Cai K, Reetz E, Reese ML, Nicastro D. Cryo-tomography reveals rigid-body motion and organization of apicomplexan invasion machinery. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1775. [PMID: 36997532 PMCID: PMC10063558 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-37327-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The apical complex is a specialized collection of cytoskeletal and secretory machinery in apicomplexan parasites, which include the pathogens that cause malaria and toxoplasmosis. Its structure and mechanism of motion are poorly understood. We used cryo-FIB-milling and cryo-electron tomography to visualize the 3D-structure of the apical complex in its protruded and retracted states. Averages of conoid-fibers revealed their polarity and unusual nine-protofilament arrangement with associated proteins connecting and likely stabilizing the fibers. Neither the structure of the conoid-fibers nor the architecture of the spiral-shaped conoid complex change during protrusion or retraction. Thus, the conoid moves as a rigid body, and is not spring-like and compressible, as previously suggested. Instead, the apical-polar-rings (APR), previously considered rigid, dilate during conoid protrusion. We identified actin-like filaments connecting the conoid and APR during protrusion, suggesting a role during conoid movements. Furthermore, our data capture the parasites in the act of secretion during conoid protrusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Gui
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - William J O'Shaughnessy
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Kai Cai
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Department of Biophysics, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Evan Reetz
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Michael L Reese
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
| | - Daniela Nicastro
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
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8
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Burrell A, Marugan-Hernandez V, Graefin Von Der Recke K, Aguiar-Martins K, Gabriel HB, Tomley FM, Vaughan S. Refractile bodies of Eimeria tenella are proteinaceous membrane-less organelles that undergo dynamic changes during infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1082622. [PMID: 37033474 PMCID: PMC10081493 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1082622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionRefractile bodies (RB) are large membrane-less organelles (MLO) of unknown function found as a prominent mismatched pair within the sporozoite stages of all species of Eimeria, parasitic coccidian protozoa.MethodsHigh resolution imaging methods including time-lapse live confocal microscopy and serial block face-scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) were used to investigate the morphology of RB and other intracellular organelles before and after sporozoite invasion of host cells.ResultsLive cell imaging of MDBK cells infected with E. tenella sporozoites confirmed previous reports that RB reduce from two to one post-infection and showed that reduction in RB number occurs via merger of the anterior RB with the posterior RB, a process that lasts 20-40 seconds and takes place between 2- and 5-hours post-infection. Ultrastructural studies using SBF-SEM on whole individual sporozoites, both pre- and post-host cell invasion, confirmed the live cell imaging observations and showed also that changes to the overall sporozoite cell shape accompanied RB merger. Furthermore, the single RB post-merger was found to be larger in volume than the two RB pre-merger. Actin inhibitors were used to investigate a potential role for actin in RB merger, Cytochalasin D significantly inhibited both RB merger and the accompanying changes in sporozoite cell shape.DiscussionMLOs in eukaryotic organisms are characterised by their lack of a membrane and ability to undergo liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and fusion, usually in an actin-mediated fashion. Based on the changes in sporozoite cell shape observed at the time of RB merger together with a potential role for actin in this process, we propose that RB are classed as an MLO and recognised as one of the largest MLOs so far characterised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alana Burrell
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, North Mymms, United Kingdom
| | - Virginia Marugan-Hernandez
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, North Mymms, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Virginia Marugan-Hernandez, ; Sue Vaughan,
| | - Karolin Graefin Von Der Recke
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, North Mymms, United Kingdom
| | - Kelsilandia Aguiar-Martins
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, North Mymms, United Kingdom
| | - Heloisa Berti Gabriel
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona M. Tomley
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, North Mymms, United Kingdom
| | - Sue Vaughan
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Virginia Marugan-Hernandez, ; Sue Vaughan,
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9
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Eastwood TA, Baker K, Streather BR, Allen N, Wang L, Botchway SW, Brown IR, Hiscock JR, Lennon C, Mulvihill DP. High-yield vesicle-packaged recombinant protein production from E. coli. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2023; 3:100396. [PMID: 36936078 PMCID: PMC10014274 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
We describe an innovative system that exports diverse recombinant proteins in membrane-bound vesicles from E. coli. These recombinant vesicles compartmentalize proteins within a micro-environment that enables production of otherwise challenging insoluble, toxic, or disulfide-bond containing proteins from bacteria. The release of vesicle-packaged proteins supports isolation from the culture and allows long-term storage of active protein. This technology results in high yields of vesicle-packaged, functional proteins for efficient downstream processing for a wide range of applications from discovery science to applied biotechnology and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara A. Eastwood
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK
| | - Karen Baker
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK
| | - Bree R. Streather
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK
| | - Nyasha Allen
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK
- School of Chemistry and Forensics, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK
| | - Lin Wang
- Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell, Didcot, Oxford OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Stanley W. Botchway
- Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell, Didcot, Oxford OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Ian R. Brown
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK
| | - Jennifer R. Hiscock
- School of Chemistry and Forensics, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK
| | - Christopher Lennon
- Fujifilm-Diosynth Biotechnologies UK, Ltd., Belasis Avenue, Billingham TS23 1LH, UK
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10
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Munera Lopez J, Tengganu IF, Liu J, Murray JM, Arias Padilla LF, Zhang Y, Brown PT, Florens L, Hu K. An apical protein, Pcr2, is required for persistent movement by the human parasite Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010776. [PMID: 35994509 PMCID: PMC9436145 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The phylum Apicomplexa includes thousands of species of unicellular parasites that cause a wide range of human and animal diseases such as malaria and toxoplasmosis. To infect, the parasite must first initiate active movement to disseminate through tissue and invade into a host cell, and then cease moving once inside. The parasite moves by gliding on a surface, propelled by an internal cortical actomyosin-based motility apparatus. One of the most effective invaders in Apicomplexa is Toxoplasma gondii, which can infect any nucleated cell and any warm-blooded animal. During invasion, the parasite first makes contact with the host cell "head-on" with the apical complex, which features an elaborate cytoskeletal apparatus and associated structures. Here we report the identification and characterization of a new component of the apical complex, Preconoidal region protein 2 (Pcr2). Pcr2 knockout parasites replicate normally, but they are severely diminished in their capacity for host tissue destruction due to significantly impaired invasion and egress, two vital steps in the lytic cycle. When stimulated for calcium-induced egress, Pcr2 knockout parasites become active, and secrete effectors to lyse the host cell. Calcium-induced secretion of the major adhesin, MIC2, also appears to be normal. However, the movement of the Pcr2 knockout parasite is spasmodic, which drastically compromises egress. In addition to faulty motility, the ability of the Pcr2 knockout parasite to assemble the moving junction is impaired. Both defects likely contribute to the poor efficiency of invasion. Interestingly, actomyosin activity, as indicated by the motion of mEmerald tagged actin chromobody, appears to be largely unperturbed by the loss of Pcr2, raising the possibility that Pcr2 may act downstream of or in parallel with the actomyosin machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Munera Lopez
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Isadonna F. Tengganu
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Jun Liu
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
| | - John M. Murray
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Luisa F. Arias Padilla
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Ying Zhang
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Peter T. Brown
- Department of Physics and Center for Biological Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Laurence Florens
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Ke Hu
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution/School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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11
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Li W, Grech J, Stortz JF, Gow M, Periz J, Meissner M, Jimenez-Ruiz E. A splitCas9 phenotypic screen in Toxoplasma gondii identifies proteins involved in host cell egress and invasion. Nat Microbiol 2022; 7:882-895. [PMID: 35538310 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-022-01114-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, have specific adaptations that enable invasion and exit from the host cell. Owing to the phylogenetic distance between apicomplexan parasites and model organisms, comparative genomics has limited capacity to infer gene functions. Further, although CRISPR/Cas9-based screens have assigned roles to some Toxoplasma genes, the functions of encoded proteins have proven difficult to assign. To overcome this problem, we devised a conditional Cas9-system in T. gondii that enables phenotypic screens. Using an indicator strain for F-actin dynamics and apicoplast segregation, we screened 320 genes to identify those required for defined steps in the asexual life cycle. The detailed characterization of two genes identified in our screen, through the generation of conditional knockout parasites using the DiCre-system, revealed that signalling linking factor (SLF) is an integral part of a signalling complex required for early induction of egress, and a novel conoid protein (conoid gliding protein, CGP) functions late during egress and is required for the activation of gliding motility. Establishing different indicator lines and applying our conditional Cas9 screen could enable the identification of genes involved in organellar biogenesis, parasite replication or maintenance of the endosymbiotic organelles in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany
| | - Janessa Grech
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany
| | - Johannes Felix Stortz
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.,Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Matthew Gow
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany
| | - Javier Periz
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany
| | - Markus Meissner
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany. .,Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Elena Jimenez-Ruiz
- Experimental Parasitology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, LMU, Munich, Germany.
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12
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Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium falciparum, are the cause of many important human and animal diseases. While T. gondii tachyzoites replicate through endodyogeny, during which two daughter cells are formed within the parental cell, P. falciparum replicates through schizogony, where up to 32 parasites are formed in a single infected red blood cell and even thousands of daughter cells during mosquito- or liver-stage development. These processes require a tightly orchestrated division and distribution over the daughter parasites of one-per-cell organelles such as the mitochondrion and apicoplast. Although proper organelle segregation is highly essential, the molecular mechanism and the key proteins involved remain largely unknown. In this review, we describe organelle dynamics during cell division in T. gondii and P. falciparum, summarize the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying organelle fission in these parasites, and introduce candidate fission proteins.
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13
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Das S, Stortz JF, Meissner M, Periz J. The multiple functions of actin in apicomplexan parasites. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13345. [PMID: 33885206 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The cytoskeletal protein actin is highly abundant and conserved in eukaryotic cells. It occurs in two different states- the globular (G-actin) form, which can polymerise into the filamentous (F-actin) form, fulfilling various critical functions including cytokinesis, cargo trafficking and cellular motility. In higher eukaryotes, there are several actin isoforms with nearly identical amino acid sequences. Despite the high level of amino acid identity, they display regulated expression patterns and unique non-redundant roles. The number of actin isoforms together with conserved sequences may reflect the selective pressure exerted by scores of actin binding proteins (ABPs) in higher eukaryotes. In contrast, in many protozoans such as apicomplexan parasites which possess only a few ABPs, the regulatory control of actin and its multiple functions are still obscure. Here, we provide a summary of the regulation and biological functions of actin in higher eukaryotes and compare it with the current knowledge in apicomplexans. We discuss future experiments that will help us understand the multiple, critical roles of this fascinating system in apicomplexans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujaan Das
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Experimental Parasitology, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Johannes Felix Stortz
- Department Metabolism of Infection, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Markus Meissner
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Experimental Parasitology, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Javier Periz
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Experimental Parasitology, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
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14
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Gubbels MJ, Coppens I, Zarringhalam K, Duraisingh MT, Engelberg K. The Modular Circuitry of Apicomplexan Cell Division Plasticity. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:670049. [PMID: 33912479 PMCID: PMC8072463 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.670049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The close-knit group of apicomplexan parasites displays a wide variety of cell division modes, which differ between parasites as well as between different life stages within a single parasite species. The beginning and endpoint of the asexual replication cycles is a 'zoite' harboring the defining apical organelles required for host cell invasion. However, the number of zoites produced per division round varies dramatically and can unfold in several different ways. This plasticity of the cell division cycle originates from a combination of hard-wired developmental programs modulated by environmental triggers. Although the environmental triggers and sensors differ between species and developmental stages, widely conserved secondary messengers mediate the signal transduction pathways. These environmental and genetic input integrate in division-mode specific chromosome organization and chromatin modifications that set the stage for each division mode. Cell cycle progression is conveyed by a smorgasbord of positively and negatively acting transcription factors, often acting in concert with epigenetic reader complexes, that can vary dramatically between species as well as division modes. A unique set of cell cycle regulators with spatially distinct localization patterns insert discrete check points which permit individual control and can uncouple general cell cycle progression from nuclear amplification. Clusters of expressed genes are grouped into four functional modules seen in all division modes: 1. mother cytoskeleton disassembly; 2. DNA replication and segregation (D&S); 3. karyokinesis; 4. zoite assembly. A plug-and-play strategy results in the variety of extant division modes. The timing of mother cytoskeleton disassembly is hard-wired at the species level for asexual division modes: it is either the first step, or it is the last step. In the former scenario zoite assembly occurs at the plasma membrane (external budding), and in the latter scenario zoites are assembled in the cytoplasm (internal budding). The number of times each other module is repeated can vary regardless of this first decision, and defines the modes of cell division: schizogony, binary fission, endodyogeny, endopolygeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc-Jan Gubbels
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kourosh Zarringhalam
- Department of Mathematics, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Manoj T. Duraisingh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Klemens Engelberg
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
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15
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Ben Chaabene R, Lentini G, Soldati-Favre D. Biogenesis and discharge of the rhoptries: Key organelles for entry and hijack of host cells by the Apicomplexa. Mol Microbiol 2021; 115:453-465. [PMID: 33368727 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Rhoptries are specialized secretory organelles found in the Apicomplexa phylum, playing a central role in the establishment of parasitism. The rhoptry content includes membranous as well as proteinaceous materials that are discharged into the host cell in a regulated fashion during parasite entry. A set of rhoptry neck proteins form a RON complex that critically participates in the moving junction formation during invasion. Some of the rhoptry bulb proteins are associated with the membranous materials and contribute to the formation of the parasitophorous vacuole membrane while others are targeted into the host cell including the nucleus to subvert cellular functions. Here, we review the recent studies on Toxoplasma and Plasmodium parasites that shed light on the key steps leading to rhoptry biogenesis, trafficking, and discharge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rouaa Ben Chaabene
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, CMU, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Gaëlle Lentini
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, CMU, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, CMU, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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16
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Tagoe DNA, Drozda AA, Falco JA, Bechtel TJ, Weerapana E, Gubbels MJ. Ferlins and TgDOC2 in Toxoplasma Microneme, Rhoptry and Dense Granule Secretion. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:217. [PMID: 33803212 PMCID: PMC7999867 DOI: 10.3390/life11030217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The host cell invasion process of apicomplexan parasites like Toxoplasma gondii is facilitated by sequential exocytosis of the microneme, rhoptry and dense granule organelles. Exocytosis is facilitated by a double C2 domain (DOC2) protein family. This class of C2 domains is derived from an ancestral calcium (Ca2+) binding archetype, although this feature is optional in extant C2 domains. DOC2 domains provide combinatorial power to the C2 domain, which is further enhanced in ferlins that harbor 5-7 C2 domains. Ca2+ conditionally engages the C2 domain with lipids, membranes, and/or proteins to facilitating vesicular trafficking and membrane fusion. The widely conserved T. gondii ferlins 1 (FER1) and 2 (FER2) are responsible for microneme and rhoptry exocytosis, respectively, whereas an unconventional TgDOC2 is essential for microneme exocytosis. The general role of ferlins in endolysosmal pathways is consistent with the repurposed apicomplexan endosomal pathways in lineage specific secretory organelles. Ferlins can facilitate membrane fusion without SNAREs, again pertinent to the Apicomplexa. How temporal raises in Ca2+ combined with spatiotemporally available membrane lipids and post-translational modifications mesh to facilitate sequential exocytosis events is discussed. In addition, new data on cross-talk between secretion events together with the identification of a new microneme protein, MIC21, is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel N A Tagoe
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA
| | - Allison A Drozda
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA
| | - Julia A Falco
- Department of Chemistry, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA
| | - Tyler J Bechtel
- Department of Chemistry, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA
| | | | - Marc-Jan Gubbels
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA
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17
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Carmeille R, Schiano Lomoriello P, Devarakonda PM, Kellermeier JA, Heaslip AT. Actin and an unconventional myosin motor, TgMyoF, control the organization and dynamics of the endomembrane network in Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1008787. [PMID: 33529198 PMCID: PMC7880465 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that relies on three distinct secretory organelles, the micronemes, rhoptries, and dense granules, for parasite survival and disease pathogenesis. Secretory proteins destined for these organelles are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and sequentially trafficked through a highly polarized endomembrane network that consists of the Golgi and multiple post-Golgi compartments. Currently, little is known about how the parasite cytoskeleton controls the positioning of the organelles in this pathway, or how vesicular cargo is trafficked between organelles. Here we show that F-actin and an unconventional myosin motor, TgMyoF, control the dynamics and organization of the organelles in the secretory pathway, specifically ER tubule movement, apical positioning of the Golgi and post-Golgi compartments, apical positioning of the rhoptries, and finally, the directed transport of Rab6-positive and Rop1-positive vesicles. Thus, this study identifies TgMyoF and actin as the key cytoskeletal components that organize the endomembrane system in T. gondii. Endomembrane trafficking is a vital cellular process in all eukaryotic cells. In most cases the molecular motors myosin, kinesin, and dynein transport cargo including vesicles, organelles and transcripts along actin and microtubule filaments in a manner analogous to a train moving on its tracks. For the unicellular eukaryote Toxoplasma gondii, the accurate trafficking of proteins through the endomembrane system is vital for parasite survival and pathogenicity. However, the mechanisms of cargo transport in this parasite are poorly understood. In this study, we fluorescently labeled multiple endomembrane organelles and imaged their movements using live cell microscopy. We demonstrate that filamentous actin and an unconventional myosin motor named TgMyoF control both the positioning of organelles in this pathway and the movement of transport vesicles throughout the parasite cytosol. This data provides new insight into the mechanisms of cargo transport in this important pathogen and expands our understanding of the biological roles of actin in the intracellular phase of the parasite’s growth cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Carmeille
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Porfirio Schiano Lomoriello
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Parvathi M. Devarakonda
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Jacob A. Kellermeier
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Aoife T. Heaslip
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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18
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Martin-Fernandez ML. A brief history of the octopus imaging facility to celebrate its 10th anniversary. J Microsc 2020; 281:3-15. [PMID: 33111321 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.12974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Octopus (Optics Clustered to OutPut Unique Solutions) celebrated in June 2020 its 10th birthday. Based at Harwell, near Oxford, Octopus is an open access, peer reviewed, national imaging facility that offers successful U.K. applicants supported access to single molecule imaging, confocal microscopy, several flavours of superresolution imaging, light sheet microscopy, optical trapping and cryoscanning electron microscopy. Managed by a multidisciplinary team, Octopus has so far assisted >100 groups of U.K. and international researchers. Cross-fertilisation across fields proved to be a strong propeller of success underpinned by combining access to top-end instrumentation with a strong programme of imaging hardware and software developments. How Octopus was born, and highlights of the multidisciplinary output produced during its 10-year journey are reviewed below, with the aim of celebrating a myriad of collaborations with the U.K. scientific community, and reflecting on their scientific and societal impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Martin-Fernandez
- Central Laser Facility, Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell, Didcot, Oxford, U.K
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19
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Gubbels MJ, Keroack CD, Dangoudoubiyam S, Worliczek HL, Paul AS, Bauwens C, Elsworth B, Engelberg K, Howe DK, Coppens I, Duraisingh MT. Fussing About Fission: Defining Variety Among Mainstream and Exotic Apicomplexan Cell Division Modes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:269. [PMID: 32582569 PMCID: PMC7289922 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular reproduction defines life, yet our textbook-level understanding of cell division is limited to a small number of model organisms centered around humans. The horizon on cell division variants is expanded here by advancing insights on the fascinating cell division modes found in the Apicomplexa, a key group of protozoan parasites. The Apicomplexa display remarkable variation in offspring number, whether karyokinesis follows each S/M-phase or not, and whether daughter cells bud in the cytoplasm or bud from the cortex. We find that the terminology used to describe the various manifestations of asexual apicomplexan cell division emphasizes either the number of offspring or site of budding, which are not directly comparable features and has led to confusion in the literature. Division modes have been primarily studied in two human pathogenic Apicomplexa, malaria-causing Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii, a major cause of opportunistic infections. Plasmodium spp. divide asexually by schizogony, producing multiple daughters per division round through a cortical budding process, though at several life-cycle nuclear amplifications stages, are not followed by karyokinesis. T. gondii divides by endodyogeny producing two internally budding daughters per division round. Here we add to this diversity in replication mechanisms by considering the cattle parasite Babesia bigemina and the pig parasite Cystoisospora suis. B. bigemina produces two daughters per division round by a “binary fission” mechanism whereas C. suis produces daughters through both endodyogeny and multiple internal budding known as endopolygeny. In addition, we provide new data from the causative agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), Sarcocystis neurona, which also undergoes endopolygeny but differs from C. suis by maintaining a single multiploid nucleus. Overall, we operationally define two principally different division modes: internal budding found in cyst-forming Coccidia (comprising endodyogeny and two forms of endopolygeny) and external budding found in the other parasites studied (comprising the two forms of schizogony, binary fission and multiple fission). Progressive insights into the principles defining the molecular and cellular requirements for internal vs. external budding, as well as variations encountered in sexual stages are discussed. The evolutionary pressures and mechanisms underlying apicomplexan cell division diversification carries relevance across Eukaryota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc-Jan Gubbels
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Caroline D Keroack
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Sriveny Dangoudoubiyam
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Hanna L Worliczek
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States.,Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Aditya S Paul
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ciara Bauwens
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Brendan Elsworth
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States.,School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Klemens Engelberg
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Daniel K Howe
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Manoj T Duraisingh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States
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