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Beaudrot L, Acevedo MA, Gorczynski D, Harris NC. Geographic differences in body size distributions underlie food web connectance of tropical forest mammals. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6965. [PMID: 38521800 PMCID: PMC10960815 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57500-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Understanding variation in food web structure over large spatial scales is an emerging research agenda in food web ecology. The density of predator-prey links in a food web (i.e., connectance) is a key measure of network complexity that describes the mean proportional dietary breadth of species within a food web. Connectance is a critical component of food web robustness to species loss: food webs with lower connectance have been shown to be more susceptible to secondary extinctions. Identifying geographic variation in food web connectance and its drivers may provide insight into community robustness to species loss. We investigated the food web connectance of ground-dwelling tropical forest mammal communities in multiple biogeographic regions to test for differences among regions in food web connectance and to test three potential drivers: primary productivity, contemporary anthropogenic pressure, and variation in mammal body mass distributions reflective of historical extinctions. Mammal communities from fifteen protected forests throughout the Neo-, Afro-, and Asian tropics were identified from systematic camera trap arrays. Predator-prey interaction data were collected from published literature, and we calculated connectance for each community as the number of observed predator-prey links relative to the number of possible predator-prey links. We used generalized linear models to test for differences among regions and to identify the site level characteristics that best predicted connectance. We found that mammal food web connectance varied significantly among continents and that body size range was the only significant predictor. More possible predator-prey links were observed in communities with smaller ranges in body size and therefore sites with smaller body size ranges had higher mean proportional dietary breadth. Specifically, mammal communities in the Neotropics and in Madagascar had significantly higher connectance than mammal communities in Africa. This geographic variation in contemporary mammalian food web structure may be the product of historical extinctions in the Late Quaternary, which led to greater losses of large-bodied species in the Neotropics and Madagascar thus contributing to higher average proportional dietary breadth among the remaining smaller bodied species in these regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Beaudrot
- Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.
| | - Miguel A Acevedo
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Daniel Gorczynski
- Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Nyeema C Harris
- Applied Wildlife Ecology Lab, School of the Environment, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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2
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Lu Q, Cheng C, Xiao L, Li J, Li X, Zhao X, Lu Z, Zhao J, Yao M. Food webs reveal coexistence mechanisms and community organization in carnivores. Curr Biol 2023; 33:647-659.e5. [PMID: 36669497 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Globally, massive carnivore guild extirpations have led to trophic downgrading and compromised ecosystem services. However, the complexity of multi-carnivore food webs complicates accurate identification of species interactions and community organization. Here, we used fecal DNA metabarcoding to investigate three communities that together encompass eight large- and meso-carnivore species and their 44 prey taxa of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), one of the last places on Earth that still harbors intact carnivore assemblages. Quantitative food-web analyses revealed pronounced interspecific variations in the carnivores' prey compositions and dietary partitioning both between and within guilds. Additionally, body masses of the carnivores and their prey exhibited consistent hump-shaped correlations across communities. Overall, differences in prey diversity, size category, and proportional utilization among the carnivore species result in trophic niche segregation that likely promotes carnivore coexistence in the harsh QTP environment. Network structure analyses detected significant modularity in all food webs but nestedness in only one. Furthermore, network characterization identified pikas (Ochotona spp.), bharal (Pseudois nayaur), and domestic yak (Bos grunniens) as potential keystone prey across the areas. Our results paint a holistic and detailed picture of the QTP carnivore assemblages' trophic networks and demonstrate that the combined use of the molecular dietary approach and network analysis can generate structural insights into carnivore coexistence and can identify functionally important species in complex communities. Such knowledge can help safeguard carnivore guild integrity and enhance community resilience to environmental perturbations in the sensitive QTP ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Chen Cheng
- Center for Nature and Society, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Shan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Lingyun Xiao
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Juan Li
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Xueyang Li
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xiang Zhao
- Shan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhi Lu
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Center for Nature and Society, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Shan Shui Conservation Center, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jindong Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Meng Yao
- School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
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3
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Díaz M. Dealing with global threats to biodiversity: A pressing but realistic challenge. FRONTIERS IN CONSERVATION SCIENCE 2023; 4. [DOI: 10.3389/fcosc.2023.1147470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
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4
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Mestre F, Rozenfeld A, Araújo MB. Human disturbances affect the topology of food webs. Ecol Lett 2022; 25:2476-2488. [PMID: 36167463 PMCID: PMC9828725 DOI: 10.1111/ele.14107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Networks describe nodes connected by links, with numbers of links per node, the degree, forming a range of distributions including random and scale-free. How network topologies emerge in natural systems still puzzles scientists. Based on previous theoretical simulations, we predict that scale-free food webs are favourably selected by random disturbances while random food webs are selected by targeted disturbances. We assume that lower human pressures are more likely associated with random disturbances, whereas higher pressures are associated with targeted ones. We examine these predictions using 351 empirical food webs, generally confirming our predictions. Should the topology of food webs respond to changes in the magnitude of disturbances in a predictable fashion, consistently across ecosystems and scales of organisation, it would provide a baseline expectation to understand and predict the consequences of human pressures on ecosystem dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederico Mestre
- ‘Rui Nabeiro’ Biodiversity Chair, MED – Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE – Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Institute for Advanced Studies and ResearchUniversidade de ÉvoraÉvoraPortugal
| | - Alejandro Rozenfeld
- ‘Rui Nabeiro’ Biodiversity Chair, MED – Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE – Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Institute for Advanced Studies and ResearchUniversidade de ÉvoraÉvoraPortugal,Centro de Investigaciones en Física e Ingeniería del CentroUniversidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y TécnicasTandilBuenos AiresArgentina,CONICET‐CIFICEN‐Universidad del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos AiresTandilBuenos AiresArgentina
| | - Miguel B. Araújo
- ‘Rui Nabeiro’ Biodiversity Chair, MED – Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE – Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Institute for Advanced Studies and ResearchUniversidade de ÉvoraÉvoraPortugal,Department of Biogeography and Global Change, National Museum of Natural SciencesCSICMadridSpain
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5
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Lintulaakso K, Tatti N, Žliobaitė I. Quantifying mammalian diets. Mamm Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s42991-022-00323-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
AbstractWe propose a quantitative approach for categorising mammalian diets based on the taxonomy of food items and parts consumed (the form of food). Our analysis covers 82% of the mammalian species alive today. The diet information comes from different data sources—textbooks, datasets and peer-reviewed literature and includes a transformation of narrative quantitative data into qualitative data. We link a database on nutrient composition of diet items of the quantitative diet data and analyse the distribution of macronutrients of diets across taxonomic groups and map them to the dental morphology of the eaters. The results show associations between dental complexity and the concentrations of some nutrients. Our analysis highlights omnivory as a multi-faceted concept—there are many kinds of omnivores within the dietary space we report. The developed dataset and the proposed approach relating the chemical composition of diets offers a basis for future comparative studies of living and fossil mammals. With this study, we make the accompanying large-scale dietary data publicly available online (https://www.mammalbase.net).
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7
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Ecological network complexity scales with area. Nat Ecol Evol 2022; 6:307-314. [PMID: 35027724 PMCID: PMC7614050 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-021-01644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Larger geographical areas contain more species-an observation raised to a law in ecology. Less explored is whether biodiversity changes are accompanied by a modification of interaction networks. We use data from 32 spatial interaction networks from different ecosystems to analyse how network structure changes with area. We find that basic community structure descriptors (number of species, links and links per species) increase with area following a power law. Yet, the distribution of links per species varies little with area, indicating that the fundamental organization of interactions within networks is conserved. Our null model analyses suggest that the spatial scaling of network structure is determined by factors beyond species richness and the number of links. We demonstrate that biodiversity-area relationships can be extended from species counts to higher levels of network complexity. Therefore, the consequences of anthropogenic habitat destruction may extend from species loss to wider simplification of natural communities.
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8
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Mesocarnivore Distribution along Gradients of Anthropogenic Disturbance in Mediterranean Landscapes. DIVERSITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/d14020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Wildfires are important sources of landscape change in Mediterranean environments, creating large patches of low-growth natural habitats (i.e., scrublands) inside protected areas, whereas woodland patches remain mostly near well protected human settlements. Landscape patterns resulting from these gradients influence habitat suitability for mesocarnivores regarding food and shelter. In winter and summer 2019, we sampled 16 independent line-transects with four camera traps each (64 cameras overall), covering the main habitats of the study area (woodlands, scrublands, and crops). Cameras were baited to compensate for the low detectability of target species, and mesocarnivore contacts were analysed by means of GLMMs and occupancy models. Our results showed a positive and stronger association of wild species with woodland habitats, despite the low proportion of habitat available, higher presence of competitors (other mesocarnivores), and potential predators (human pets, i.e., dogs), and low natural prey availability than in scrubland (i.e., small mammals). However, mesocarnivores will find protection against predators and resting sites in forests as well as other food opportunities in crops and urban areas, despite the possible interference with humans and their pets. Potential cascading effects linked to ecological roles of Mediterranean mesocarnivores on the succession of Mediterranean landscapes would imply longer-term effects of human disturbance on landscape trends.
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Vuorinen KEM, Oksanen T, Oksanen L, Vuorisalo T, Speed JDM. Why don't all species overexploit? OIKOS 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.08358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katariina E. M. Vuorinen
- Dept of Natural History, NTNU Univ. Museum, Norwegian Univ. of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
| | - Tarja Oksanen
- Dept of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT, The Arctic Univ. of Norway, Campus Alta Alta Norway
- Dept of Biology, Ecology Section, Univ. of Turku Turku Finland
| | - Lauri Oksanen
- Dept of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT, The Arctic Univ. of Norway, Campus Alta Alta Norway
- Dept of Biology, Ecology Section, Univ. of Turku Turku Finland
| | - Timo Vuorisalo
- Dept of Biology, Ecology Section, Univ. of Turku Turku Finland
| | - James D. M. Speed
- Dept of Natural History, NTNU Univ. Museum, Norwegian Univ. of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
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10
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Pereira CL, Gilbert MTP, Araújo MB, Matias MG. Fine‐tuning biodiversity assessments: A framework to pair eDNA metabarcoding and morphological approaches. Methods Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.13718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Cátia Lúcio Pereira
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias NaturalesCSIC Madrid Spain
- Centre for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate Globe Institute University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
- Rui Nabeiro Biodiversity Chair MED – Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture Environment and Development University of Évora Évora Portugal
| | - M. Thomas P. Gilbert
- Centre for Evolutionary Hologenomics Globe Institute University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
- University MuseumNTNU Trondheim Norway
| | - Miguel Bastos Araújo
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias NaturalesCSIC Madrid Spain
- Rui Nabeiro Biodiversity Chair MED – Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture Environment and Development University of Évora Évora Portugal
| | - Miguel Graça Matias
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias NaturalesCSIC Madrid Spain
- Rui Nabeiro Biodiversity Chair MED – Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture Environment and Development University of Évora Évora Portugal
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11
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The Effect of Climate and Human Pressures on Functional Diversity and Species Richness Patterns of Amphibians, Reptiles and Mammals in Europe. DIVERSITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/d13060275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The ongoing biodiversity crisis reinforces the urgent need to unravel diversity patterns and the underlying processes shaping them. Although taxonomic diversity has been extensively studied and is considered the common currency, simultaneously conserving other facets of diversity (e.g., functional diversity) is critical to ensure ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services. Here, we explored the effect of key climatic factors (temperature, precipitation, temperature seasonality, and precipitation seasonality) and factors reflecting human pressures (agricultural land, urban land, land-cover diversity, and human population density) on the functional diversity (functional richness and Rao’s quadratic entropy) and species richness of amphibians (68 species), reptiles (107 species), and mammals (176 species) in Europe. We explored the relationship between different predictors and diversity metrics using generalized additive mixed model analysis, to capture non-linear relationships and to account for spatial autocorrelation. We found that at this broad continental spatial scale, climatic variables exerted a significant effect on the functional diversity and species richness of all taxa. On the other hand, variables reflecting human pressures contributed significantly in the models even though their explanatory power was lower compared to climatic variables. In most cases, functional richness and Rao’s quadratic entropy responded similarly to climate and human pressures. In conclusion, climate is the most influential factor in shaping both the functional diversity and species richness patterns of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals in Europe. However, incorporating factors reflecting human pressures complementary to climate could be conducive to us understanding the drivers of functional diversity and richness patterns.
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12
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Díaz M, Grim T, Markó G, Morelli F, Ibáñez-Alamo JD, Jokimäki J, Kaisanlahti-Jokimäki ML, Tätte K, Tryjanowski P, Møller AP. Effects of climate variation on bird escape distances modulate community responses to global change. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12826. [PMID: 34145317 PMCID: PMC8213824 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-92273-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate and land use are rapidly changing environmental conditions. Behavioral responses to such global perturbations can be used to incorporate interspecific interactions into predictive models of population responses to global change. Flight initiation distance (FID) reflects antipredator behaviour defined as the distance at which an individual takes flight when approached by a human, under standardized conditions. This behavioural trait results from a balance between disturbance, predation risk, food availability and physiological needs, and it is related to geographical range and population trends in European birds. Using 32,145 records of flight initiation distances for 229 bird species during 2006–2019 in 24 European localities, we show that FIDs decreased with increasing temperature and precipitation, as expected if foraging success decreased under warm and humid conditions. Trends were further altered by latitude, urbanisation and body mass, as expected if climate effects on FIDs were mediated by food abundance and need, differing according to position in food webs, supporting foraging models. This provides evidence for a role of behavioural responses within food webs on how bird populations and communities are affected by global change.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Díaz
- Department of Biogeography and Global Change, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (BGC-MNCN-CSIC), c/Serrano 115bis, 28006, Madrid, Spain.
| | - T Grim
- Department of Zoology and Laboratory of Ornithology, Palacky University, 77146, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - G Markó
- Behavioral Ecology Group, Department of Systematics, Zoology and Ecology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, 1117, Budapest, Hungary.,Department of Plant Pathology, Institute of Plant Protection, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Ménesi út 44, 1118, Budapest, Hungary
| | - F Morelli
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Community Ecology and Conservation, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - J D Ibáñez-Alamo
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - J Jokimäki
- Nature Inventory and EIA-Services, Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, P. O. Box 122, 96101, Rovaniemi, Finland
| | - M-L Kaisanlahti-Jokimäki
- Nature Inventory and EIA-Services, Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, P. O. Box 122, 96101, Rovaniemi, Finland
| | - K Tätte
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 19 51014, Tartu, Estonia
| | - P Tryjanowski
- Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71C, 60625, Poznań, Poland
| | - A P Møller
- Ecologie Systématique et Evolution, Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, AgroParisTech, 91405, Orsay, France
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Calatayud J, Neuman M, Rojas A, Eriksson A, Rosvall M. Regularities in species' niches reveal the world's climate regions. eLife 2021; 10:58397. [PMID: 33554863 PMCID: PMC7963475 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate regions form the basis of many ecological, evolutionary, and conservation studies. However, our understanding of climate regions is limited to how they shape vegetation: they do not account for the distribution of animals. Here, we develop a network-based framework to identify important climates worldwide based on regularities in realized niches of about 26,000 tetrapods. We show that high-energy climates, including deserts, tropical savannas, and steppes, are consistent across animal- and plant-derived classifications, indicating similar underlying climatic determinants. Conversely, temperate climates differ across all groups, suggesting that these climates allow for idiosyncratic adaptations. Finally, we show how the integration of niche classifications with geographical information enables the detection of climatic transition zones and the signal of geographic and historical processes. Our results identify the climates shaping the distribution of tetrapods and call for caution when using general climate classifications to study the ecology, evolution, or conservation of specific taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquín Calatayud
- Integrated Science Lab, Department of Physics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.,Departamento de Biología, Geología, Física y Química inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Magnus Neuman
- Integrated Science Lab, Department of Physics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Alexis Rojas
- Integrated Science Lab, Department of Physics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anton Eriksson
- Integrated Science Lab, Department of Physics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Martin Rosvall
- Integrated Science Lab, Department of Physics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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14
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Guimarães PR. The Structure of Ecological Networks Across Levels of Organization. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012220-120819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Interactions connect the units of ecological systems, forming networks. Individual-based networks characterize variation in niches among individuals within populations. These individual-based networks merge with each other, forming species-based networks and food webs that describe the architecture of ecological communities. Networks at broader spatiotemporal scales portray the structure of ecological interactions across landscapes and over macroevolutionary time. Here, I review the patterns observed in ecological networks across multiple levels of biological organization. A fundamental challenge is to understand the amount of interdependence as we move from individual-based networks to species-based networks and beyond. Despite the uneven distribution of studies, regularities in network structure emerge across scales due to the fundamental architectural patterns shared by complex networks and the interplay between traits and numerical effects. I illustrate the integration of these organizational scales by exploring the consequences of the emergence of highly connected species for network structures across scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo R. Guimarães
- Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-090, Brazil
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