Paradoxical activation of the protein kinase-transcription factor ERK5 by ERK5 kinase inhibitors

Latent allosteric control of protein interactions by ATP-competitive kinase inhibitors

Protein kinase inhibitors designed to compete with ATP as a primary mode of action turn out to have considerable effects that go beyond their interference of nucleotide binding. New research shows how kinase activation and sometimes noncatalytic functions of protein kinases can be controlled by allosteric properties of kinase inhibitors, communicating perturbations from the active site to distal regulatory regions.

TXN promotes tumorigenesis by activating the ERK1/2 and ERK5 signaling pathways regulating c-Myc in non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is the primary cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, particularly for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, the exact mechanism underlying tumor formation remains unclear. It is widely acknowledged that inflammation and oxidative stress occur in the tumor microenvironment, promoting cell malignant growth and metastasis. Thioredoxin-1 (TXN), the main regulator of oxidative stress, plays a significant role in the development of NSCLC. However, the specific tumor-promoting mechanism is still being investigated. This study aimed to examine the function and mechanism of TXN in NSCLC. The effects of knockdown or overexpression TXN on cell proliferation, invasion and apoptosis were evaluated by Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation, wound healing, transwell, TUNEL staining, and flow cytometric assays. Western blotting was performed to analyze the regulation of TXN and downstream proteins suppressed by genes and pharmacology. TXN knockdown significantly suppressed cell proliferation, invasion and promoted apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo, whereas TXN overexpression reversed these malignant phenotypes. We found that TXN regulated c-Myc expression through ERK1/2 and ERK5 signaling pathways. Suppressing ERK1/2 led to the compensatory activation of ERK5, and simultaneously inhibiting ERK1/2 and ERK5 synergistically reduced c-Myc expression, further attenuating cell proliferation, invasion and enhanced apoptosis. Our results indicated tumor promotion of TXN in NSCLC and TXN regulated c-Myc in the interest of tumorigenesis through ERK1/2 and ERK5 signaling pathways. Targeting TXN and blocking the ERK1/2 and ERK5 pathways could potentially offer new therapeutic strategies for NSCLC.

ERK5 suppression overcomes FAK inhibitor resistance in mutant KRAS-driven non-small cell lung cancer

Mutated KRAS serves as the oncogenic driver in 30% of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs) and is associated with metastatic and therapy-resistant tumors. Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) acts as a mediator in sustaining KRAS-driven lung tumors, and although FAK inhibitors are currently undergoing clinical development, clinical data indicated that their efficacy in producing long-term anti-tumor responses is limited. Here we revealed two FAK interactors, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5), as key players underlying FAK-mediated maintenance of KRAS mutant NSCLC. Inhibition of ERK5 and CDK5 synergistically suppressed FAK function, decreased proliferation and induced apoptosis owing to exacerbated ROS-induced DNA damage. Accordingly, concomitant pharmacological inhibition of ERK5 and CDK5 in a mouse model of KrasG12D-driven lung adenocarcinoma suppressed tumor progression and promoted cancer cell death. Cancer cells resistant to FAK inhibitors showed enhanced ERK5-FAK signaling dampening DNA damage. Notably, ERK5 inhibition prevented the development of resistance to FAK inhibitors, significantly enhancing the efficacy of anti-tumor responses. Therefore, we propose ERK5 inhibition as a potential co-targeting strategy to counteract FAK inhibitor resistance in NSCLC.

Integrated analysis of patients with bladder cancer from prospective transcription factor activity: Implications for personalized treatment approaches

Transcription factors are a specialized group of proteins that play important roles in regulating gene expression in human. These proteins control the transcription and translation of genes by binding to specific sites on DNA, thereby regulating key biological processes such as cell differentiation, proliferation, immune response, and neural development. Moreover, transcription factors are also involved in apoptosis and the pathogenesis of various diseases. By investigating transcription factors, researchers can uncover the mechanisms of gene regulation in organisms and develop more effective methods for preventing and treating human diseases. In the present study, the Virtual Inference of Protein-activity by Enriched Regulon algorithm was utilized to calculate the protein activity of transcription factors, and the metabolic-related protein activity were used for classifying bladder cancer patients into different subtype. To identify chemotherapy drugs with clinical benefits, the differences in prognosis and drug sensitivity between two distinct subtypes of bladder cancer patients were investigated. Simultaneously, the master regulators that display varying levels of transcription factor activity between two different bladder cancer subtypes were explored. Additionally, the potential transcriptional regulatory mechanisms and targets of these factors were investigated, thereby generating novel insights into bladder cancer research at the transcriptional regulation level.

Latent-Transforming Growth Factor β-Binding Protein 1/Transforming Growth Factor β1 Complex Drives Antitumoral Effects upon ERK5 Targeting in Melanoma

Melanoma is the deadliest skin cancer, with a poor prognosis in advanced stages. While available treatments have improved survival, long-term benefits are still unsatisfactory. The mitogen-activated protein kinase extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) promotes melanoma growth, and ERK5 inhibition determines cellular senescence and the senescence-associated secretory phenotype. Here, latent-transforming growth factor β-binding protein 1 (LTBP1) mRNA was found to be up-regulated in A375 and SK-Mel-5 BRAF V600E melanoma cells after ERK5 inhibition. In keeping with a key role of LTBP1 in regulating transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), TGF-β1 protein levels were increased in lysates and conditioned media of ERK5-knockdown (KD) cells, and were reduced upon LTBP1 KD. Both LTBP1 and TGF-β1 proteins were increased in melanoma xenografts in mice treated with the ERK5 inhibitor XMD8-92. Moreover, treatment with conditioned media from ERK5-KD melanoma cells reduced cell proliferation and invasiveness, and TGF-β1-neutralizing antibodies impaired these effects. In silico data sets revealed that higher expression levels of both LTBP1 and TGF-β1 mRNA were associated with better overall survival of melanoma patients. Increased LTBP1 or TGF-β1 expression played a beneficial role in patients treated with anti-PD1 immunotherapy, making a possible immunosuppressive role of LTBP1/TGF-β1 unlikely upon ERK5 inhibition. This study, therefore, identifies additional desirable effects of ERK5 targeting, providing evidence of an ERK5-dependent tumor-suppressive role of TGF-β in melanoma.

Enzyme Is the Name-Adapter Is the Game

Signaling proteins in eukaryotes usually comprise a catalytic domain coupled to one or several interaction domains, such as SH2 and SH3 domains. An additional class of proteins critically involved in cellular communication are adapter or scaffold proteins, which fulfill their purely non-enzymatic functions by organizing protein-protein interactions. Intriguingly, certain signaling enzymes, e.g., kinases and phosphatases, have been demonstrated to promote particular cellular functions by means of their interaction domains only. In this review, we will refer to such a function as "the adapter function of an enzyme". Though many stories can be told, we will concentrate on several proteins executing critical adapter functions in cells of the immune system, such as Bruton´s tyrosine kinase (BTK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), and SH2-containing inositol phosphatase 1 (SHIP1), as well as in cancer cells, such as proteins of the rat sarcoma/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (RAS/ERK) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. We will also discuss how these adaptor functions of enzymes determine or even undermine the efficacy of targeted therapy compounds, such as ATP-competitive kinase inhibitors. Thereby, we are highlighting the need to develop pharmacological approaches, such as proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs), that eliminate the entire protein, and thus both enzymatic and adapter functions of the signaling protein. We also review how genetic knock-out and knock-in approaches can be leveraged to identify adaptor functions of signaling proteins.

Importin subunit beta-1 mediates ERK5 nuclear translocation, and its inhibition synergizes with ERK5 kinase inhibitors in reducing cancer cell proliferation

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) is emerging as a promising target in cancer. Indeed, alterations of the MEK5/ERK5 pathway are present in many types of cancer, including melanoma. One of the key events in MAPK signalling is MAPK nuclear translocation and its subsequent regulation of gene expression. Likewise, the effects of ERK5 in supporting cancer cell proliferation have been linked to its nuclear localization. Despite many processes regulating ERK5 nuclear translocation having been determined, the nuclear transporters involved have not yet been identified. Here, we investigated the role of importin subunit alpha (α importin) and importin subunit beta-1 (importin β1) in ERK5 nuclear shuttling to identify additional targets for cancer treatment. Either importin β1 knockdown or the α/β1 importin inhibitor ivermectin reduced the nuclear amount of overexpressed and endogenous ERK5 in HEK293T and A375 melanoma cells, respectively. These results were confirmed in single-molecule microscopy in HeLa cells. Moreover, immunofluorescence analysis showed that ivermectin impairs epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced ERK5 nuclear shuttling in HeLa cells. Both co-immunoprecipitation experiments and proximity ligation assay provided evidence that ERK5 and importin β1 interact and that this interaction is further induced by EGF administration and prevented by ivermectin treatment. The combination of ivermectin and the ERK5 inhibitor AX15836 synergistically reduced cell viability and colony formation ability in A375 and HeLa cells and was more effective than single treatments in preventing the growth of A375 and HeLa spheroids. The increased reduction of cell viability upon the same combination was also observed in patient-derived metastatic melanoma cells. The combination of ivermectin and ERK5 inhibitors other than AX15836 provided similar effects on cell viability. The identification of importin β1 as the nuclear transporter of ERK5 may be exploited for additional ERK5-inhibiting strategies for cancer therapy.

Anticancer drugs: How to select small molecule combinations?

Small molecules are at the forefront of anticancer therapies. Successive treatments with single molecules incur drug resistance, calling for combination. Here, we explore the tough choices oncologists face - not just which drugs to use but also the best treatment plans, based on factors such as target proteins, pathways, and gene expression. We consider the reality of cancer's disruption of normal cellular processes, highlighting why it's crucial to understand the ins and outs of current treatment methods. The discussion on using combination drug therapies to target multiple pathways sheds light on a promising approach while also acknowledging the hurdles that come with it, such as dealing with pathway crosstalk. We review options and provide examples and the mechanistic basis, altogether providing the first comprehensive guide to combinatorial therapy selection.

Chemical proteomics reveals the target landscape of 1,000 kinase inhibitors

Medicinal chemistry has discovered thousands of potent protein and lipid kinase inhibitors. These may be developed into therapeutic drugs or chemical probes to study kinase biology. Because of polypharmacology, a large part of the human kinome currently lacks selective chemical probes. To discover such probes, we profiled 1,183 compounds from drug discovery projects in lysates of cancer cell lines using Kinobeads. The resulting 500,000 compound-target interactions are available in ProteomicsDB and we exemplify how this molecular resource may be used. For instance, the data revealed several hundred reasonably selective compounds for 72 kinases. Cellular assays validated GSK986310C as a candidate SYK (spleen tyrosine kinase) probe and X-ray crystallography uncovered the structural basis for the observed selectivity of the CK2 inhibitor GW869516X. Compounds targeting PKN3 were discovered and phosphoproteomics identified substrates that indicate target engagement in cells. We anticipate that this molecular resource will aid research in drug discovery and chemical biology.

CDK1-SRC Interaction-Dependent Transcriptional Activation of HSP90AB1 Promotes Antitumor Immunity in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

This study aimed to analyze multiomics data and construct a regulatory network involving kinases, transcription factors, and immune genes in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) prognosis. The researchers used transcriptomic, proteomic, and clinical data from TCGA and GEO databases to identify immune genes associated with HCC. Statistical analysis, meta-analysis, and protein-protein interaction analyses were performed to identify key immune genes and their relationships. In vitro and in vivo experiments validated the CDK1-SRC-HSP90AB1 network's effects on HCC progression and antitumor immunity. A prognostic risk model was developed using clinicopathological features and immune infiltration. The immune genes LPA, BIRC5, HSP90AB1, ROBO1, and CCL20 were identified as the key prognostic factors. The CDK1-SRC-HSP90AB1 network promoted HCC cell proliferation and migration, with HSP90AB1 being transcriptionally activated by the CDK1-SRC interaction. Manipulating SRC or HSP90AB1 reversed the effects of CDK1 and SRC on HCC. The CDK1-SRC-HSP90AB1 network also influenced HCC tumor formation and antitumor immunity. Overall, this study highlights the importance of the CDK1-SRC-HSP90AB1 network as a crucial immune-regulatory network in the HCC prognosis.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Proteolysis-Targeting Chimeras as Highly Selective and Efficient Degraders of Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 5

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) is recognized as a key member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase family and is involved in tumor growth, migration, and angiogenesis. However, the results of ERK5 inhibition in multiple studies are controversial, and a highly specific ERK5-targeting agent is required to confirm physiological functions. Using proteolysis-targeting chimera technology, we designed the selective ERK5 degrader PPM-3 and examined its biological effect on cancer cells. Interestingly, the selective degradation of ERK5 with PPM-3 did not influence tumor cell growth directly. Based on proteomics analysis, the ERK5 deletion may be associated with tumor immunity. PPM-3 influences tumor development by affecting the differentiation of macrophages. Therefore, PPM-3 is an effective small-molecule tool for studying ERK5 and a promising immunotherapy drug candidate.

The significance of ERK5 catalytic-independent functions in disease pathways

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5), also known as BMK1 or MAPK7, represents a recent addition to the classical mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family. This family includes well-known members such as ERK1/2, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), as well as atypical MAPKs such as ERK3, ERK4, ERK7 (ERK8), and Nemo-like kinase (NLK). Comprehensive reviews available elsewhere provide detailed insights into ERK5, which interested readers can refer to for in-depth knowledge (Nithianandarajah-Jones et al., 2012; Monti et al., Cancers (Basel), 2022, 14). The primary aim of this review is to emphasize the essential characteristics of ERK5 and shed light on the intricate nature of its activation, with particular attention to the catalytic-independent functions in disease pathways.

An ERK5-NRF2 Axis Mediates Senescence-Associated Stemness and Atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

ERK5 (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5) is a dual kinase transcription factor containing an N-terminal kinase domain and a C-terminal transcriptional activation domain. Many ERK5 kinase inhibitors have been developed and tested to treat cancer and inflammatory diseases. However, recent data have raised questions about the role of the catalytic activity of ERK5 in proliferation and inflammation. We aimed to investigate how ERK5 reprograms myeloid cells to the proinflammatory senescent phenotype, subsequently leading to atherosclerosis.

METHODS

A ERK5 S496A (dephosphorylation mimic) knock in (KI) mouse model was generated using CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat-associated 9), and atherosclerosis was characterized by hypercholesterolemia induction. The plaque phenotyping in homozygous ERK5 S496A KI and wild type (WT) mice was studied using imaging mass cytometry. Bone marrow-derived macrophages were isolated from hypercholesterolemic mice and characterized using RNA sequencing and functional in vitro approaches, including senescence, mitochondria reactive oxygen species, and inflammation assays, as well as by metabolic extracellular flux analysis.

RESULTS

We show that atherosclerosis was inhibited in ERK5 S496A KI mice. Furthermore, ERK5 S496 phosphorylation mediates both senescence-associated secretory phenotype and senescence-associated stemness by upregulating AHR (aryl hydrocarbon receptor) in plaque and bone marrow-derived macrophages isolated from hypercholesterolemic mice. We also discovered that ERK5 S496 phosphorylation could induce NRF2 (NFE2-related factor 2) SUMOylation at a novel K518 site to inhibit NRF2 transcriptional activity without altering ERK5 catalytic activity and mediates oxidized LDL (low-density lipoprotein)-induced senescence-associated secretory phenotype. Specific ERK5 kinase inhibitors (AX15836 and XMD8-92) also inhibited ERK5 S496 phosphorylation, suggesting the involvement of ERK5 S496 phosphorylation in the anti-inflammatory effects of these ERK5 kinase inhibitors.

CONCLUSIONS

We discovered a novel mechanism by which the macrophage ERK5-NRF2 axis develops a unique senescence-associated secretory phenotype/stemness phenotype by upregulating AHR to engender atherogenesis. The finding of senescence-associated stemness phenotype provides a molecular explanation to resolve the paradox of senescence in proliferative plaque by permitting myeloid cells to escape the senescence-induced cell cycle arrest during atherosclerosis formation.

Kinases in cerebral cavernous malformations: Pathogenesis and therapeutic targets

Cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) are low-flow, hemorrhagic vascular lesions of the central nervous system of genetic origin, which can cause stroke-like symptoms and seizures. From the identification of CCM1, CCM2 and CCM3 as genes related to disease progression, molecular and cellular mechanisms for CCM pathogenesis have been established and the search for potential drugs to target CCM has begun. Broadly speaking, kinases are the major group signaling in CCM pathogenesis. These include the MEKK3/MEK5/ERK5 cascade, Rho/Rock signaling, CCM3/GCKIII signaling, PI3K/mTOR signaling, and others. Since the discovery of Rho/Rock in CCM pathogenesis, inhibitors for Rho signaling and subsequently other components in CCM signaling were discovered and applied in preclinical and clinical trials to ameliorate CCM progression. This review discusses the general aspects of CCM disease, kinase-mediated signaling in CCM pathogenesis and the current state of potential treatment options for CCM. It is suggested that kinase target drug development in the context of CCM might facilitate and meet the unmet requirement - a non-surgical option for CCM disease.

Pathophysiological Impact of the MEK5/ERK5 Pathway in Oxidative Stress

Oxidative stress regulates many physiological and pathological processes. Indeed, a low increase in the basal level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is essential for various cellular functions, including signal transduction, gene expression, cell survival or death, as well as antioxidant capacity. However, if the amount of generated ROS overcomes the antioxidant capacity, excessive ROS results in cellular dysfunctions as a consequence of damage to cellular components, including DNA, lipids and proteins, and may eventually lead to cell death or carcinogenesis. Both in vitro and in vivo investigations have shown that activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 5/extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (MEK5/ERK5) pathway is frequently involved in oxidative stress-elicited effects. In particular, accumulating evidence identified a prominent role of this pathway in the anti-oxidative response. In this respect, activation of krüppel-like factor 2/4 and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 emerged among the most frequent events in ERK5-mediated response to oxidative stress. This review summarizes what is known about the role of the MEK5/ERK5 pathway in the response to oxidative stress in pathophysiological contexts within the cardiovascular, respiratory, lymphohematopoietic, urinary and central nervous systems. The possible beneficial or detrimental effects exerted by the MEK5/ERK5 pathway in the above systems are also discussed.

Modulation of ERK5 Activity as a Therapeutic Anti-Cancer Strategy

The extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) signaling pathway is one of four conventional mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathways. Genetic perturbation of ERK5 has suggested that modulation of ERK5 activity may have therapeutic potential in cancer chemotherapy. This Miniperspective examines the evidence for ERK5 as a drug target in cancer, the structure of ERK5, and the evolution of structurally distinct chemotypes of ERK5 kinase domain inhibitors. The emerging complexities of ERK5 pharmacology are discussed, including the confounding phenomenon of paradoxical ERK5 activation by small-molecule ERK5 inhibitors. The impact of the recent development and biological evaluation of potent and selective bifunctional degraders of ERK5 and future opportunities in ERK modulation are also explored.

A patent review of MAPK inhibitors (2018 - present)

INTRODUCTION

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family consist of p38 MAP kinases, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs). They are involved in a multitude of diseases, including inflammatory, autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and metabolic diseases as well as cancer. In recent years, further developments in the field of MAPK-inhibitors have been reported, including an isoform or downstream target selective inhibition of MAPKs as well as target protein degradation approaches.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes newly patented MAPK-inhibitors that were claimed between 2018 and early 2023. Presented are the patents as well as their corresponding publications, the storyline of development, and clinical trials involving these compounds. This article elaborates a total of 27 patents, which were identified using established search engines.

EXPERT OPINION

Although industrial research on MAPK-inhibitors has been ongoing for more than 20 years, novel clinical trials of MAPK-inhibitors as potential drug candidates are still being conducted in the period under review. Recently reported inhibitors show an excellent selectivity profile and are even achieving selectivity between closely related isoforms. This progression offers the possibility to eliminate unwanted side effects and may finally lead to the approval of the first MAPK-inhibitor.

A non-coding GWAS variant impacts anthracycline-induced cardiotoxic phenotypes in human iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes

Anthracyclines, widely used to treat breast cancer, have the potential for cardiotoxicity. We have previously identified and validated a germline single nucleotide polymorphism, rs28714259, associated with an increased risk of anthracycline-induced heart failure. We now provide insights into the mechanism by which rs28714259 might confer increased risk of cardiac damage. Using hiPSC-derived cardiomyocyte cell lines with either intrinsic polymorphism or CRISPR-Cas9-mediated deletion of rs28714259 locus, we demonstrate that glucocorticoid receptor signaling activated by dexamethasone pretreatment prior to doxorubicin exposure preserves cardiomyocyte viability and contractility in cardiomyocytes containing the major allele. Homozygous loss of the rs28714259 major allele diminishes dexamethasone's protective effect. We further demonstrate that the risk allele of rs28714259 disrupts glucocorticoid receptor and rs28714259 binding affinity. Finally, we highlight the activation of genes and pathways involved in cardiac hypertrophy signaling that are blocked by the risk allele, suggesting a decreased adaptive survival response to doxorubicin-related stress.

Acute pharmacological degradation of ERK5 does not inhibit cellular immune response or proliferation

Recent interest in the role that extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) plays in various diseases, particularly cancer and inflammation, has grown. Phenotypes observed from genetic knockdown or deletion of ERK5 suggested that targeting ERK5 could have therapeutic potential in various disease settings, motivating the development ATP-competitive ERK5 inhibitors. However, these inhibitors were unable to recapitulate the effects of genetic loss of ERK5, suggesting that ERK5 may have key kinase-independent roles. To investigate potential non-catalytic functions of ERK5, we report the development of INY-06-061, a potent and selective heterobifunctional degrader of ERK5. In contrast to results reported through genetic knockdown of ERK5, INY-06-061-induced ERK5 degradation did not induce anti-proliferative effects in multiple cancer cell lines or suppress inflammatory responses in primary endothelial cells. Thus, we developed and characterized a chemical tool useful for validating phenotypes reported to be associated with genetic ERK5 ablation and for guiding future ERK5-directed drug discovery efforts.

OXTRHigh stroma fibroblasts control the invasion pattern of oral squamous cell carcinoma via ERK5 signaling

The Pattern Of Invasion (POI) of tumor cells into adjacent normal tissues clinically predicts postoperative tumor metastasis/recurrence of early oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), but the mechanisms underlying the development of these subtypes remain unclear. Focusing on the highest score of POIs (Worst POI, WPOI) present within each tumor, we observe a disease progression-driven shift of WPOI towards the high-risk type 4/5, associated with a mesenchymal phenotype in advanced OSCC. WPOI 4-5-derived cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs^WPOI4-5), characterized by high oxytocin receptor expression (OXTR^High), contribute to local-regional metastasis. OXTR^High CAFs induce a desmoplastic stroma and CCL26 is required for the invasive phenotype of CCR3⁺ tumors. Mechanistically, OXTR activates nuclear ERK5 transcription signaling via Gαq and CDC37 to maintain high levels of OXTR and CCL26. ERK5 ablation reprograms the pro-invasive phenotype of OXTR^High CAFs. Therefore, targeting ERK5 signaling in OXTR^High CAFs is a potential therapeutic strategy for OSCC patients with WPOI 4-5.

Worst pattern of invasion (WPOI) is a parameter used to quantify tumor invasiveness of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Here the authors show that a fibroblast subset characterized by the expression of the oxytocin receptor is enriched in highly invasive WPOI 4-5 OSCC tumors and can be targeted to reduce the desmoplastic stroma and tumor metastasis.

ERK5 Is a Major Determinant of Chemical Sarcomagenesis: Implications in Human Pathology

Simple Summary

Sarcoma is a heterogeneous group of tumors poorly studied with few therapeutic opportunities. Interestingly, the role of MAPKs still remains unclear in sarcomatous pathology. Here, we describe for the first time the critical role of ERK5 in the biology of soft tissue sarcoma by using in vitro and in vivo approaches in a murine experimental model of chemical sarcomagenesis. Indeed, our observations were extrapolated to a short series of human leiomyosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcomas. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis allows us to demonstrate the critical role of KLF2 in the biological effects of ERK5. Therefore, the data presented here open new windows in the diagnosis and therapy of soft tissue sarcomas.

Abstract

Sarcomas are a heterogeneous group of tumors in which the role of ERK5 is poorly studied. To clarify the role of this MAPK in sarcomatous pathology, we used a murine 3-methyl-cholanthrene (3MC)-induced sarcoma model. Our data show that 3MC induces pleomorphic sarcomas with muscle differentiation, showing an increased expression of ERK5. Indeed, this upregulation was also observed in human sarcomas of muscular origin, such as leiomyosarcoma or rhabdomyosarcoma. Moreover, in cell lines derived from these 3MC-induced tumors, abrogation of Mapk7 expression by using specific shRNAs decreased in vitro growth and colony-forming capacity and led to a marked loss of tumor growth in vivo. In fact, transcriptomic profiling in ERK5 abrogated cell lines by RNAseq showed a deregulated gene expression pattern for key biological processes such as angiogenesis, migration, motility, etc., correlating with a better prognostic in human pathology. Finally, among the various differentially expressed genes, Klf2 is a key mediator of the biological effects of ERK5 as indicated by its specific interference, demonstrating that the ERK5–KLF2 axis is an important determinant of sarcoma biology that should be further studied in human pathology.

ERK5 Signalling and Resistance to ERK1/2 Pathway Therapeutics: The Path Less Travelled?

The RAS-regulated RAF-MEK1/2-ERK1/2 signalling pathway is frequently de-regulated in human cancer. Melanoma in particular exhibits a high incidence of activating BRAFV600E/K and NRASQ61L/K mutations and such cells are addicted to the activity of these mutant oncoproteins. As a result three different BRAF inhibitors (BRAFi) have now been approved for BRAFV600E/K- mutant melanoma and have transformed the treatment of this disease. Despite this, clinical responses are typically transient as tumour cells develop resistance. These resistance mechanisms frequently involve reinstatement of ERK1/2 signalling and BRAFi are now deployed in combination with one of three approved MEK1/2 inhibitors (MEKi) to provide more durable, but still transient, clinical responses. Furthermore, inhibitors to ERK1/2 (ERK1/2i) have also been developed to counteract ERK1/2 signalling. However, recent studies have suggested that BRAFi/MEKi and ERK1/2i resistance can arise through activation of a parallel signalling pathway leading to activation of ERK5, an unusual protein kinase that contains both a kinase domain and a transcriptional transactivation domain. Here we review the evidence supporting ERK5 as a mediator of BRAFi/MEKi and ERK1/2i resistance. We also review the challenges in targeting ERK5 signalling with small molecules, including paradoxical activation of the transcriptional transactivation domain, and discuss new therapeutic modalities that could be employed to target ERK5.

Parallel Optimization of Potency and Pharmacokinetics Leading to the Discovery of a Pyrrole Carboxamide ERK5 Kinase Domain Inhibitor

The nonclassical extracellular signal-related kinase 5 (ERK5) mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway has been implicated in increased cellular proliferation, migration, survival, and angiogenesis; hence, ERK5 inhibition may be an attractive approach for cancer treatment. However, the development of selective ERK5 inhibitors has been challenging. Previously, we described the development of a pyrrole carboxamide high-throughput screening hit into a selective, submicromolar inhibitor of ERK5 kinase activity. Improvement in the ERK5 potency was necessary for the identification of a tool ERK5 inhibitor for target validation studies. Herein, we describe the optimization of this series to identify nanomolar pyrrole carboxamide inhibitors of ERK5 incorporating a basic center, which suffered from poor oral bioavailability. Parallel optimization of potency and in vitro pharmacokinetic parameters led to the identification of a nonbasic pyrazole analogue with an optimal balance of ERK5 inhibition and oral exposure.

Targeting the HER3 pseudokinase domain with small molecule inhibitors

HER3 is a potent oncogenic growth factor receptor belonging to the human epidermal growth factor (HER/EGFR) family of receptor tyrosine kinases. In contrast to other EGFR family members, HER3 is a pseudokinase, lacking functional kinase activity. As such, efforts to develop small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors against this family member have been limited. In response to HER3-specific growth factors such as neuregulin (NRG, also known as heregulin or HRG), HER3 must couple with catalytically active family members, including its preferred partner HER2. Dimerization of the intracellular HER2:HER3 kinase domains is a critical part of the activation mechanism and HER3 plays a specialized role as an allosteric activator of the active HER2 kinase partner. Intriguingly, many pseudokinases retain functionally important nucleotide binding capacity, despite loss of kinase activity. We demonstrated that occupation of the nucleotide pocket of the pseudokinase HER3 retains functional importance for growth factor signaling through oncogenic HER2:HER3 heterodimers. Mutation of the HER3 nucleotide pocket both disrupts signaling and disrupts HER2:HER3 dimerization. Conversely, ATP competitive drugs which bind to HER3, but not HER2, can stabilize HER2:HER3 dimers, induce signaling and promote cell growth in breast cancer models. This indicates a nucleotide-dependent conformational role for the HER3 kinase domain. Critically, our recent proof-of-concept work demonstrated that HER3-directed small molecule inhibitors can also disrupt HER2:HER3 dimerization and signaling, supporting the prospect that HER3 can be a direct drug target despite its lack of intrinsic activity. In this chapter we will describe methods for identifying and validating small molecule inhibitors against the HER3 pseudokinase.

BAY-885, a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 5 inhibitor, induces apoptosis by regulating the endoplasmic reticulum stress/Mcl-1/Bim pathway in breast cancer cells

The mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 5 (MEK5)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) axis has been reported to promote tumorigenesis in breast cancer (BC). Therefore, targeting the MEK5/ERK5 axis is a potential strategy against BC. BAY-885 is a novel inhibitor of ERK5; however, to date, its anti-tumor effects in BC have not been investigated. This study aimed to assess the anti-tumor effects of BAY-885 in BC and identify its underlying mechanisms of action. Unlike other ERK5 inhibitors, which frequently failed to mimic ERK5 genetic ablation phenotypes, the BAY-885 treatment effectively recapitulated ERK5 depletion effects in BC cells. Results revealed that BAY-885 affected the viability and induced apoptosis in BC cells. Moreover, the BAY-885-mediated downregulation of myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) and upregulation of Bim were dependent on ERK5 inhibition. Furthermore, BAY-885 triggered activation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, which further led to the upregulation of Bim and downregulation of Mcl-1. ER stress was induced in an ERK5 inhibition-dependent manner. These findings suggested that BAY-885 induced apoptosis in BC cells via ER stress/Mcl-1/Bim axis, suggesting that BAY-885 may serve as a therapeutic agent for BC.

Overcoming Paradoxical Kinase Priming by a Novel MNK1 Inhibitor

Targeting the kinases MNK1 and MNK2 has emerged as a valuable strategy in oncology. However, most of the advanced inhibitors are acting in an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-competitive mode, precluding the evaluation of different binding modes in preclinical settings. Using rational design, we identified and validated the 4,6-diaryl-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-3-amine scaffold as the core for MNK inhibitors. Signaling pathway analysis confirmed a direct effect of the hit compound EB1 on MNKs, and in line with the reported function of these kinases, EB1 only affects the growth of tumor but not normal cells. Molecular modeling revealed the binding of EB1 to the inactive conformation of MNK1 and the interaction with the specific DFD motif. This novel mode of action appears to be superior to the ATP-competitive inhibitors, which render the protein in a pseudo-active state. Overcoming this paradoxical activation of MNKs by EB1 represents therefore a promising starting point for the development of a novel generation of MNK inhibitors.

Clinical Significance and Regulation of ERK5 Expression and Function in Cancer

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5) is a unique kinase among MAPKs family members, given its large structure characterized by the presence of a unique C-terminal domain. Despite increasing data demonstrating the relevance of the ERK5 pathway in the growth, survival, and differentiation of normal cells, ERK5 has recently attracted the attention of several research groups given its relevance in inflammatory disorders and cancer. Accumulating evidence reported its role in tumor initiation and progression. In this review, we explore the gene expression profile of ERK5 among cancers correlated with its clinical impact, as well as the prognostic value of ERK5 and pERK5 expression levels in tumors. We also summarize the importance of ERK5 in the maintenance of a cancer stem-like phenotype and explore the major known contributions of ERK5 in the tumor-associated microenvironment. Moreover, although several questions are still open concerning ERK5 molecular regulation, different ERK5 isoforms derived from the alternative splicing process are also described, highlighting the potential clinical relevance of targeting ERK5 pathways.

An ERK5-KLF2 signalling module regulates early embryonic gene expression and telomere rejuvenation in stem cells

The ERK5 MAP kinase signalling pathway drives transcription of naïve pluripotency genes in mouse Embryonic Stem Cells (mESCs). However, how ERK5 impacts on other aspects of mESC biology has not been investigated. Here, we employ quantitative proteomic profiling to identify proteins whose expression is regulated by the ERK5 pathway in mESCs. This reveals a function for ERK5 signalling in regulating dynamically expressed early embryonic 2-cell stage (2C) genes including the mESC rejuvenation factor ZSCAN4. ERK5 signalling and ZSCAN4 induction in mESCs increases telomere length, a key rejuvenative process required for prolonged culture. Mechanistically, ERK5 promotes ZSCAN4 and 2C gene expression via transcription of the KLF2 pluripotency transcription factor. Surprisingly, ERK5 also directly phosphorylates KLF2 to drive ubiquitin-dependent degradation, encoding negative feedback regulation of 2C gene expression. In summary, our data identify a regulatory module whereby ERK5 kinase and transcriptional activities bi-directionally control KLF2 levels to pattern 2C gene transcription and a key mESC rejuvenation process.

Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 5 Regulates the Malignant Phenotype of Cholangiocarcinoma Cells

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is characterized by high resistance to chemotherapy and poor prognosis. Several oncogenic pathways converge on activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (ERK5), whose role in CCA has not been explored. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of ERK5 in the biology of CCA.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

ERK5 expression was detected in two established (HuCCT-1 and CCLP-1) and two primary human intrahepatic CCA cell lines (iCCA58 and iCCA60). ERK5 phosphorylation was increased in CCA cells exposed to soluble mediators. In both HuCCT-1 and CCLP-1 cells, ERK5 was localized in the nucleus, and exposure to fetal bovine serum (FBS) further increased the amount of nuclear ERK5. In human CCA specimens, ERK5 mRNA expression was increased in tumor cells and positively correlated with portal invasion. ERK5 protein levels were significantly associated with tumor grade. Growth, migration, and invasion of CCA cells were decreased when ERK5 was silenced using specific short hairpin RNA (shRNA). The inhibitory effects on CCA cell proliferation, migration and invasion were recapitulated by treatment with small molecule inhibitors targeting ERK5. In addition, expression of the angiogenic factors VEGF and angiopoietin 1 was reduced after ERK5 silencing. Conditioned medium from ERK5-silenced cells had a lower ability to induce tube formation by human umbilical vein endothelial cells and to induce migration of myofibroblasts and monocytes/macrophages. In mice, subcutaneous injection of CCLP-1 cells silenced for ERK5 resulted in less frequent tumor development and smaller size of xenografts compared with cells transfected with nontargeting shRNA.

CONCLUSIONS

ERK5 is a key mediator of growth and migration of CCA cells and supports a protumorigenic crosstalk between the tumor and the microenvironment.

Small molecule ERK5 kinase inhibitors paradoxically activate ERK5 signalling: be careful what you wish for…

ERK5 is a protein kinase that also contains a nuclear localisation signal and a transcriptional transactivation domain. Inhibition of ERK5 has therapeutic potential in cancer and inflammation and this has prompted the development of ERK5 kinase inhibitors (ERK5i). However, few ERK5i programmes have taken account of the ERK5 transactivation domain. We have recently shown that the binding of small molecule ERK5i to the ERK5 kinase domain stimulates nuclear localisation and paradoxical activation of its transactivation domain. Other kinase inhibitors paradoxically activate their intended kinase target, in some cases leading to severe physiological consequences highlighting the importance of mitigating these effects. Here, we review the assays used to monitor ERK5 activities (kinase and transcriptional) in cells, the challenges faced in development of small molecule inhibitors to the ERK5 pathway, and classify the molecular mechanisms of paradoxical activation of protein kinases by kinase inhibitors.

The MEK5/ERK5 Pathway in Health and Disease

The MEK5/ERK5 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) cascade is a unique signaling module activated by both mitogens and stress stimuli, including cytokines, fluid shear stress, high osmolarity, and oxidative stress. Physiologically, it is mainly known as a mechanoreceptive pathway in the endothelium, where it transduces the various vasoprotective effects of laminar blood flow. However, it also maintains integrity in other tissues exposed to mechanical stress, including bone, cartilage, and muscle, where it exerts a key function as a survival and differentiation pathway. Beyond its diverse physiological roles, the MEK5/ERK5 pathway has also been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, where it has recently emerged as a major escape route, sustaining tumor cell survival and proliferation under drug stress. In addition, MEK5/ERK5 dysfunction may foster cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis. Here, we highlight the importance of the MEK5/ERK5 pathway in health and disease, focusing on its role as a protective cascade in mechanical stress-exposed healthy tissues and its function as a therapy resistance pathway in cancers. We discuss the perspective of targeting this cascade for cancer treatment and weigh its chances and potential risks when considering its emerging role as a protective stress response pathway.

Diverse and converging roles of ERK1/2 and ERK5 pathways on mesenchymal to epithelial transition in breast cancer

The epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is characterized by a loss of cell polarity, a decrease in the epithelial cell marker E-cadherin, and an increase in mesenchymal markers including the zinc-finger E-box binding homeobox (ZEB1). The EMT is also associated with an increase in cell migration and anchorage-independent growth. Induction of a reversal of the EMT, a mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET), is an emerging strategy being explored to attenuate the metastatic potential of aggressive cancer types, such as triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) and tamoxifen-resistant (TAMR) ER-positive breast cancers, which have a mesenchymal phenotype. Patients with these aggressive cancers have poor prognoses, quick relapse, and resistance to most chemotherapeutic drugs. Overexpression of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 and ERK5 is associated with poor patient survival in breast cancer. Moreover, TNBC and tamoxifen resistant cancers are unresponsive to most targeted clinical therapies and there is a dire need for alternative therapies. In the current study, we found that MAPK3, MAPK1, and MAPK7 gene expression correlated with EMT markers and poor overall survival in breast cancer patients using publicly available datasets. The effect of ERK1/2 and ERK5 pathway inhibition on MET was evaluated in MDA-MB-231, BT-549 TNBC cells, and tamoxifen-resistant MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Moreover, TU-BcX-4IC patient-derived primary TNBC cells were included to enhance the translational relevance of our study. We evaluated the effect of pharmacological inhibitors and lentivirus-induced activation or inhibition of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 and MEK5-ERK5 pathways on cell morphology, E-cadherin, vimentin and ZEB1 expression. Additionally, the effects of pharmacological inhibition of trametinib and XMD8-92 on nuclear localization of ERK1/2 and ERK5, cell migration, proliferation, and spheroid formation were evaluated. Novel compounds that target the MEK1/2 and MEK5 pathways were used in combination with the AKT inhibitor ipatasertib to understand cell-specific responses to kinase inhibition. The results from this study will aid in the design of innovative therapeutic strategies that target cancer metastases.

Playing the Whack-A-Mole Game: ERK5 Activation Emerges Among the Resistance Mechanisms to RAF-MEK1/2-ERK1/2- Targeted Therapy

Molecularly tailored therapies have opened a new era, chronic myeloid leukemia being the ideal example, in the treatment of cancer. However, available therapeutic options are still unsatisfactory in many types of cancer, and often fail due to the occurrence of resistance mechanisms. With regard to small-molecule compounds targeting the components of the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) cascade RAF-MEK1/2-ERK1/2, these drugs may result ineffective as a consequence of the activation of compensatory pro-survival/proliferative signals, including receptor tyrosine kinases, PI3K, as well as other components of the MAPK family such as TPL2/COT. The MAPK ERK5 has been identified as a key signaling molecule in the biology of several types of cancer. In this review, we report pieces of evidence regarding the activation of the MEK5-ERK5 pathway as a resistance mechanism to RAF-MEK1/2-ERK1/2 inhibitors. We also highlight the known and possible mechanisms underlying the cross-talks between the ERK1/2 and the ERK5 pathways, the characterization of which is of great importance to maximize, in the future, the impact of RAF-MEK1/2-ERK1/2 targeting. Finally, we emphasize the need of developing additional therapeutically relevant MEK5-ERK5 inhibitors to be used for combined treatments, thus preventing the onset of resistance to cancer therapies relying on RAF-MEK1/2-ERK1/2 inhibitors.

Identification and Validation of ERK5 as a DNA Damage Modulating Drug Target in Glioblastoma

Simple Summary

Glioblastomas are high-grade brain tumours and are the most common form of malignancy arising in the brain. Patient survival has improved little over the last 40 years, highlighting an urgent unmet need for more effective treatments for these tumours. Current standard-of-care treatment involves surgical removal of as much of the tumour as possible followed by a course of chemo-/radiotherapy. The main chemotherapeutic drug used is called temozolomide, however even with this treatment regimen, the average patient survival following diagnosis is around 15 months. We have identified a protein called ERK5 which is present at higher levels in these high-grade brain tumours compared to normal brain tissue, and which is also associated with resistance to temozolomide and poor patient survival. Additionally, we show that targeting ERK5 in brain tumour cells can improve the effectiveness of temozolomide in killing these tumour cells and offers potential much-needed future clinical benefit to patients diagnosed with glioblastoma.

Abstract

Brain tumours kill more children and adults under 40 than any other cancer, with approximately half of primary brain tumours being diagnosed as high-grade malignancies known as glioblastomas. Despite de-bulking surgery combined with chemo-/radiotherapy regimens, the mean survival for these patients is only around 15 months, with less than 10% surviving over 5 years. This dismal prognosis highlights the urgent need to develop novel agents to improve the treatment of these tumours. To address this need, we carried out a human kinome siRNA screen to identify potential drug targets that augment the effectiveness of temozolomide (TMZ)—the standard-of-care chemotherapeutic agent used to treat glioblastoma. From this we identified ERK5/MAPK7, which we subsequently validated using a range of siRNA and small molecule inhibitors within a panel of glioma cells. Mechanistically, we find that ERK5 promotes efficient repair of TMZ-induced DNA lesions to confer cell survival and clonogenic capacity. Finally, using several glioblastoma patient cohorts we provide target validation data for ERK5 as a novel drug target, revealing that heightened ERK5 expression at both the mRNA and protein level is associated with increased tumour grade and poorer patient survival. Collectively, these findings provide a foundation to develop clinically effective ERK5 targeting strategies in glioblastomas and establish much-needed enhancement of the therapeutic repertoire used to treat this currently incurable disease.

Molecular Mechanisms of Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition Regulated by ERK5 Signaling

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK5) is an essential regulator of cancer progression, tumor relapse, and poor patient survival. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a complex oncogenic process, which drives cell invasion, stemness, and metastases. Activators of ERK5, including mitogen-activated protein kinase 5 (MEK5), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), are known to induce EMT and metastases in breast, lung, colorectal, and other cancers. Several downstream targets of the ERK5 pathway, such as myocyte-specific enhancer factor 2c (MEF2C), activator protein-1 (AP-1), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and c-Myc, play a critical role in the regulation of EMT transcription factors SNAIL, SLUG, and β-catenin. Moreover, ERK5 activation increases the release of extracellular matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), facilitating breakdown of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and local tumor invasion. Targeting the ERK5 signaling pathway using small molecule inhibitors, microRNAs, and knockdown approaches decreases EMT, cell invasion, and metastases via several mechanisms. The focus of the current review is to highlight the mechanisms which are known to mediate cancer EMT via ERK5 signaling. Several therapeutic approaches that can be undertaken to target the ERK5 pathway and inhibit or reverse EMT and metastases are discussed.

Targeting the MAPK7/MMP9 axis for metastasis in primary bone cancer

Metastasis is the leading cause of cancer-related death. This multistage process involves contribution from both tumour cells and the tumour stroma to release metastatic cells into the circulation. Circulating tumour cells (CTCs) survive circulatory cytotoxicity, extravasate and colonise secondary sites effecting metastatic outcome. Reprogramming the transcriptomic landscape is a metastatic hallmark, but detecting underlying master regulators that drive pathological gene expression is a key challenge, especially in childhood cancer. Here we used whole tumour plus single-cell RNA-sequencing in primary bone cancer and CTCs to perform weighted gene co-expression network analysis to systematically detect coordinated changes in metastatic transcript expression. This approach with comparisons applied to data collected from cell line models, clinical samples and xenograft mouse models revealed mitogen-activated protein kinase 7/matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MAPK7/MMP9) signalling as a driver for primary bone cancer metastasis. RNA interference knockdown of MAPK7 reduces proliferation, colony formation, migration, tumour growth, macrophage residency/polarisation and lung metastasis. Parallel to these observations were reduction of activated interleukins IL1B, IL6, IL8 plus mesenchymal markers VIM and VEGF in response to MAPK7 loss. Our results implicate a newly discovered, multidimensional MAPK7/MMP9 signalling hub in primary bone cancer metastasis that is clinically actionable.