1
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Liao Q, Ren H, Xu J, Wang P, Yuan B, Zhang H. Combined experiments and molecular simulations for understanding the thermo-responsive behavior and gelation of methylated glucans with different glycosidic linkages. J Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 674:315-325. [PMID: 38936088 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2024.06.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS Elucidation of the micro-mechanisms of sol-gel transition of gelling glucans with different glycosidic linkages is crucial for understanding their structure-property relationship and for various applications. Glucans with distinct molecular chain structures exhibit unique gelation behaviors. The disparate gelation phenomena observed in two methylated glucans, methylated (1,3)-β-d-glucan of curdlan (MECD) and methylated (1,4)-β-d-glucan of cellulose (MC), notwithstanding their equivalent degrees of substitution, are intricately linked to their unique molecular architectures and interactions between glucan and water. EXPERIMENTS Density functional theory and molecular dynamics simulations focused on the electronic property distinctions between MECD and MC, alongside conformational variations during thermal gelation. Inline attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy tracked secondary structure alterations in MECD and MC. To corroborate the simulation results, additional analyses including circular dichroism, rheology, and micro-differential scanning calorimetry were performed. FINDINGS Despite having similar thermally induced gel networks, MECD and MC display distinct physical gelation patterns and molecular-level conformational changes during gelation. The network of MC gel was formed via a "coil-to-ring" transition, followed by ring stacking. In contrast, the MECD gel comprised compact irregular helices accompanied by notable volume shrinkage. These variations in gelation behavior are ascribed to heightened hydrophobic interactions and diminished hydrogen bonding in both systems upon heating, resulting in gelation. These findings provide valuable insights into the microstructural changes during gelation and the thermo-gelation mechanisms of structurally similar polysaccharides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyu Liao
- Advanced Rheology Institute, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Huimin Ren
- Advanced Rheology Institute, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Jiatong Xu
- Advanced Rheology Institute, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Pengguang Wang
- Advanced Rheology Institute, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Baihua Yuan
- Institute of Marine Equipment, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Hongbin Zhang
- Advanced Rheology Institute, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Thermal Aging, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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2
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Drigo E, Baroni S, Pegolo P. Seebeck Coefficient of Ionic Conductors from Bayesian Regression Analysis. J Chem Theory Comput 2024. [PMID: 38856670 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.4c00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
We propose a novel approach to evaluating the ionic Seebeck coefficient in electrolytes from relatively short equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations, based on the Green-Kubo theory of linear response and Bayesian regression analysis. By exploiting the probability distribution of the off-diagonal elements of a Wishart matrix, we develop a consistent and unbiased estimator for the Seebeck coefficient, whose statistical uncertainty can be arbitrarily reduced in the long-time limit. We assess the efficacy of our method by benchmarking it against extensive equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations conducted on molten CsF using empirical force fields. We then employ this procedure to calculate the Seebeck coefficient of molten NaCl, KCl, and LiCl using neural network force fields trained on ab initio data over a range of pressure-temperature conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Drigo
- SISSA─Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Stefano Baroni
- SISSA─Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 Trieste, Italy
- CNR-IOM─Istituto Officina Materiali, DEMOCRITOS SISSA Unit, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Paolo Pegolo
- SISSA─Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 Trieste, Italy
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3
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Zhang C, Puligheddu M, Zhang L, Car R, Galli G. Thermal Conductivity of Water at Extreme Conditions. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:7011-7017. [PMID: 37524047 PMCID: PMC10424233 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c02972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Measuring the thermal conductivity (κ) of water at extreme conditions is a challenging task, and few experimental data are available. We predict κ for temperatures and pressures relevant to the conditions of the Earth mantle, between 1,000 and 2,000 K and up to 22 GPa. We employ close to equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations and a deep neural network potential fitted to density functional theory data. We then interpret our results by computing the equation of state of water on a fine grid of points and using a simple model for κ. We find that the thermal conductivity is weakly dependent on temperature and monotonically increases with pressure with an approximate square-root behavior. In addition, we show how the increase of κ at high pressure, relative to ambient conditions, is related to the corresponding increase in the sound velocity. Although the relationships between the thermal conductivity, pressure and sound velocity established here are not rigorous, they are sufficiently accurate to allow for a robust estimate of the thermal conductivity of water in a broad range of temperatures and pressures, where experiments are still difficult to perform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cunzhi Zhang
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Marcello Puligheddu
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Materials
Science Division and Center for Molecular Engineering, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Linfeng Zhang
- Program
in Applied and Computational Mathematics, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Roberto Car
- Program
in Applied and Computational Mathematics, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Physics, and Princeton Institute for the
Science and Technology of Materials, Princeton
University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Giulia Galli
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Materials
Science Division and Center for Molecular Engineering, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
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4
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Pan S, Huang T, Vazan A, Liang Z, Liu C, Wang J, Pickard CJ, Wang HT, Xing D, Sun J. Magnesium oxide-water compounds at megabar pressure and implications on planetary interiors. Nat Commun 2023; 14:1165. [PMID: 36859401 PMCID: PMC9977943 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36802-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) and water (H2O) are abundant in the interior of planets. Their properties, and in particular their interaction, significantly affect the planet interior structure and thermal evolution. Here, using crystal structure predictions and ab initio molecular dynamics simulations, we find that MgO and H2O can react again at ultrahigh pressure, although Mg(OH)2 decomposes at low pressure. The reemergent MgO-H2O compounds are: Mg2O3H2 above 400 GPa, MgO3H4 above 600 GPa, and MgO4H6 in the pressure range of 270-600 GPa. Importantly, MgO4H6 contains 57.3 wt % of water, which is a much higher water content than any reported hydrous mineral. Our results suggest that a substantial amount of water can be stored in MgO rock in the deep interiors of Earth to Neptune mass planets. Based on molecular dynamics simulations we show that these three compounds exhibit superionic behavior at the pressure-temperature conditions as in the interiors of Uranus and Neptune. Moreover, the water-rich compound MgO4H6 could be stable inside the early Earth and therefore may serve as a possible early Earth water reservoir. Our findings, in the poorly explored megabar pressure regime, provide constraints for interior and evolution models of wet planets in our solar system and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuning Pan
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XNational Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, 210093 Nanjing, China
| | - Tianheng Huang
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XNational Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, 210093 Nanjing, China
| | - Allona Vazan
- grid.412512.10000 0004 0604 7424Astrophysics Research Center of the Open University (ARCO), The Open University of Israel, 4353701 Raanana, Israel
| | - Zhixin Liang
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XNational Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, 210093 Nanjing, China
| | - Cong Liu
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XNational Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, 210093 Nanjing, China
| | - Junjie Wang
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XNational Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, 210093 Nanjing, China
| | - Chris J. Pickard
- grid.5335.00000000121885934Theory of Condensed Matter Group, Cavendish Laboratory, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 0HE UK ,grid.69566.3a0000 0001 2248 6943Advanced Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba, Sendai, 980-8577 Japan
| | - Hui-Tian Wang
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XNational Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, 210093 Nanjing, China
| | - Dingyu Xing
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XNational Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, 210093 Nanjing, China
| | - Jian Sun
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics and Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, 210093, Nanjing, China.
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5
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Determination of thermal conductivities in liquids by identifying heat transport in nonequilibrium MD simulations. J Mol Liq 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.120916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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6
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Niu C, Zhang H, Zhang J, Zeng Z, Wang X. Ultralow Melting Temperature of High-Pressure Face-Centered Cubic Superionic Ice. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:7448-7453. [PMID: 35930621 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c01814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Superionic ice with oxygen in a face-centered cubic (fcc) sublattice is ascribed to the origin of magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune, since the melting temperature (Tm) of fcc-superionic ice is believed to be higher than the isentropes of ice giants. However, precisely measuring the fcc-superionic phase experimentally remains a difficult task. The majority of the systematic investigations of its Tm were performed using perfect oxygen fcc-sublattice computations, which could result in superheating and overestimation of Tm. On the basis of the ab initio molecular dynamics method and the model with H2O vacancy, we avoid superheating and obtain a much lower Tm than previous reports, indicating that fcc-superionic ice cannot exist in the interiors of Uranus and Neptune. Further simulations with the two-phase method justify the conclusion. The results suggest that superheating should be seriously treated when simulating the phase diagram of other hydrogen-related superionic states, which are widely used to understand the properties of ice giants, Earth, and Venus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caoping Niu
- Key Laboratory of Materials Physics, Institute of Solid State Physics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Hanxing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Materials Physics, Institute of Solid State Physics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Materials Physics, Institute of Solid State Physics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Zhi Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Materials Physics, Institute of Solid State Physics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Xianlong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Materials Physics, Institute of Solid State Physics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
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7
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Grasselli F. Investigating finite-size effects in molecular dynamics simulations of ion diffusion, heat transport, and thermal motion in superionic materials. J Chem Phys 2022; 156:134705. [PMID: 35395883 DOI: 10.1063/5.0087382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of the finite size of the simulation box in equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations are investigated for prototypical superionic conductors of different types, namely, the fluorite-structure materials PbF2, CaF2, and UO2 (type II), and the α phase of AgI (type I). Largely validated empirical force-fields are employed to run ns-long simulations and extract general trends for several properties, at increasing size and in a wide temperature range. This work shows that, for the considered type-II superionic conductors, the diffusivity dramatically depends on the system size and that the superionic regime is shifted to larger temperatures in smaller cells. Furthermore, only simulations of several hundred atoms are able to capture the experimentally observed, characteristic change in the activation energy of the diffusion process, occurring at the order-disorder transition to the superionic regime. Finite-size effects on ion diffusion are instead much weaker in α-AgI. The thermal conductivity is found generally smaller for smaller cells, where the temperature-independent (Allen-Feldman) regime is also reached at significantly lower temperatures. The finite-size effects on the thermal motion of the non-mobile ions composing the solid matrix follow the simple law that holds for solids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Grasselli
- COSMO-Laboratory of Computational Science and Modelling, IMX, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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8
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Huang T, Liu C, Wang J, Pan S, Han Y, Pickard CJ, Helled R, Wang HT, Xing D, Sun J. Metallic Aluminum Suboxides with Ultrahigh Electrical Conductivity at High Pressure. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2022; 2022:9798758. [PMID: 36111317 PMCID: PMC9448442 DOI: 10.34133/2022/9798758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Aluminum, as the most abundant metallic elemental content in the Earth's crust, usually exists in the form of alumina (Al2O3). However, the oxidation state of aluminum and the crystal structures of aluminum oxides in the pressure range of planetary interiors are not well established. Here, we predicted two aluminum suboxides (Al2O, AlO) and two superoxides (Al4O7, AlO3) with uncommon stoichiometries at high pressures using first-principle calculations and crystal structure prediction methods. We find that the P4/nmm Al2O becomes stable above ~765 GPa and may survive in the deep mantles or cores of giant planets such as Neptune. Interestingly, the Al2O and AlO are metallic and have electride features, in which some electrons are localized in the interstitials between atoms. We find that Al2O has an electrical conductivity one order of magnitude higher than that of iron under the same pressure-temperature conditions, which may influence the total conductivity of giant planets. Our findings enrich the high-pressure phase diagram of aluminum oxides and improve our understanding of the interior structure of giant planets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianheng Huang
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics, And Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Cong Liu
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics, And Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Junjie Wang
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics, And Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Shuning Pan
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics, And Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Yu Han
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics, And Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Chris J. Pickard
- Department of Materials Science & Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK
- Advanced Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Ravit Helled
- Institute for Computational Science, Center for Theoretical Astrophysics & Cosmology, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hui-Tian Wang
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics, And Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Dingyu Xing
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics, And Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Jian Sun
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Physics, And Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
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9
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Grasselli F, Baroni S. Invariance principles in the theory and computation of transport coefficients. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. B 2021; 94:160. [PMID: 34776779 PMCID: PMC8550620 DOI: 10.1140/epjb/s10051-021-00152-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT In this work, we elaborate on two recently discovered invariance principles, according to which transport coefficients are, to a large extent, independent of the microscopic definition of the densities and currents of the conserved quantities being transported (energy, momentum, mass, charge). The first such principle, gauge invariance, allows one to define a quantum adiabatic energy current from density-functional theory, from which the heat conductivity can be uniquely defined and computed using equilibrium ab initio molecular dynamics. When combined with a novel topological definition of atomic oxidation states, gauge invariance also sheds new light onto the mechanisms of charge transport in ionic conductors. The second principle, convective invariance, allows one to extend the analysis to multi-component systems. These invariance principles can be combined with new spectral analysis methods for the current time series to be fed into the Green-Kubo formula to obtain accurate estimates of transport coefficients from relatively short molecular dynamics simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Grasselli
- COSMO–Laboratory of Computational Science and Modelling, IMX, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stefano Baroni
- SISSA–Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 EU Trieste, Italy
- CNR-IOM DEMOCRITOS Simulation Center, SISSA, 34136 Trieste, EU Italy
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10
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Li X, Lowe A, Conway L, Miao M, Hermann A. First principles study of dense and metallic nitric sulfur hydrides. Commun Chem 2021; 4:83. [PMID: 36697602 PMCID: PMC9814481 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-021-00517-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of molecular mixtures containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S) could open up new routes towards hydrogen-rich high-temperature superconductors under pressure. H2S and ammonia (NH3) form hydrogen-bonded molecular mixtures at ambient conditions, but their phase behavior and propensity towards mixing under pressure is not well understood. Here, we show stable phases in the H2S-NH3 system under extreme pressure conditions to 4 Mbar from first-principles crystal structure prediction methods. We identify four stable compositions, two of which, (H2S) (NH3) and (H2S) (NH3)4, are stable in a sequence of structures to the Mbar regime. A re-entrant stabilization of (H2S) (NH3)4 above 300 GPa is driven by a marked reversal of sulfur-hydrogen chemistry. Several stable phases exhibit metallic character. Electron-phonon coupling calculations predict superconducting temperatures up to 50 K, in the Cmma phase of (H2S) (NH3) at 150 GPa. The present findings shed light on how sulfur hydride bonding and superconductivity are affected in molecular mixtures. They also suggest a reservoir for hydrogen sulfide in the upper mantle regions of icy planets in a potentially metallic mixture, which could have implications for their magnetic field formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Li
- grid.440830.b0000 0004 1793 4563College of Physics and Electronic Information, Luoyang Normal University, Luoyang, China ,grid.4305.20000 0004 1936 7988Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions and SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Angus Lowe
- grid.4305.20000 0004 1936 7988Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions and SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Lewis Conway
- grid.4305.20000 0004 1936 7988Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions and SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Maosheng Miao
- grid.253563.40000 0001 0657 9381Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University, Northridge, CA USA ,grid.133342.40000 0004 1936 9676Department of Earth Science, University of California Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Andreas Hermann
- grid.4305.20000 0004 1936 7988Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions and SUPA, School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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