1
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Tachibana Y, Sasai M, Yamamoto M. CRISPR screens identify genes essential for in vivo virulence among proteins of hyperLOPIT-unassigned subcellular localization in Toxoplasma. mBio 2024; 15:e0172824. [PMID: 39082802 PMCID: PMC11389413 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01728-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The research field to identify and characterize genes essential for in vivo virulence in Toxoplasma gondii has been dramatically advanced by a series of in vivo clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) screens. Although subcellular localizations of thousands of proteins were predicted by the spatial proteomic method called hyperLOPIT, those of more than 1,000 proteins remained unassigned, and their essentiality in virulence was also unknown. In this study, we generated two small-scale gRNA libraries targeting approximately 600 hyperLOPIT-unassigned proteins and performed in vivo CRISPR screens. As a result, we identified several genes essential for in vivo virulence that were previously unreported. We further characterized two candidates, TgGTPase and TgRimM, which are localized in the cytoplasm and the apicoplast, respectively. Both genes are essential for parasite virulence and widely conserved in the phylum Apicomplexa. Collectively, our current study provides a resource for estimating the in vivo essentiality of Toxoplasma proteins with previously unknown localizations.IMPORTANCEToxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that causes severe infection in immunocompromised patients or newborns. Toxoplasma possesses more than 8,000 genes; however, the genes essential for in vivo virulence were not fully identified. The apicomplexan parasites, including Toxoplasma, developed unique organelles that do not exist in other model organisms; thus, determining the subcellular location of parasite proteins is important for understanding their functions. Here, we used in vivo genetic screens that enabled us to investigate hundreds of genes in Toxoplasma during mouse infection. We screened approximately 600 parasite proteins with previously unknown subcellular localizations. We identified many novel genes that confer parasite virulence in mice. Among the top hits, we characterized two genes essential for in vivo virulence, TgGTPase and TgRimM, which are widely conserved in the phylum Apicomplexa. Our findings will contribute to understanding how apicomplexans adapt to the host environment and cause disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Tachibana
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka, Japan
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka, Japan
| | - Miwa Sasai
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka, Japan
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masahiro Yamamoto
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka, Japan
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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2
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Giuliano CJ, Wei KJ, Harling FM, Waldman BS, Farringer MA, Boydston EA, Lan TCT, Thomas RW, Herneisen AL, Sanderlin AG, Coppens I, Dvorin JD, Lourido S. CRISPR-based functional profiling of the Toxoplasma gondii genome during acute murine infection. Nat Microbiol 2024; 9:2323-2343. [PMID: 38977907 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-024-01754-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
Examining host-pathogen interactions in animals can capture aspects of infection that are obscured in cell culture. Using CRISPR-based screens, we functionally profile the entire genome of the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii during murine infection. Barcoded gRNAs enabled bottleneck detection and mapping of population structures within parasite lineages. Over 300 genes with previously unknown roles in infection were found to modulate parasite fitness in mice. Candidates span multiple axes of host-parasite interaction. Rhoptry Apical Surface Protein 1 was characterized as a mediator of host-cell tropism that facilitates repeated invasion attempts. GTP cyclohydrolase I was also required for fitness in mice and druggable through a repurposed compound, 2,4-diamino-6-hydroxypyrimidine. This compound synergized with pyrimethamine against T. gondii and malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum parasites. This work represents a complete survey of an apicomplexan genome during infection of an animal host and points to novel interfaces of host-parasite interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kenneth J Wei
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Benjamin S Waldman
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Madeline A Farringer
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Biological Sciences in Public Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | - Raina W Thomas
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Alice L Herneisen
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Dvorin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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3
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Herneisen AL, Peters ML, Smith TA, Shortt E, Lourido S. SPARK regulates AGC kinases central to the Toxoplasma gondii asexual cycle. eLife 2024; 13:RP93877. [PMID: 39136687 PMCID: PMC11321763 DOI: 10.7554/elife.93877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites balance proliferation, persistence, and spread in their metazoan hosts. AGC kinases, such as PKG, PKA, and the PDK1 ortholog SPARK, integrate environmental signals to toggle parasites between replicative and motile life stages. Recent studies have cataloged pathways downstream of apicomplexan PKG and PKA; however, less is known about the global integration of AGC kinase signaling cascades. Here, conditional genetics coupled to unbiased proteomics demonstrates that SPARK complexes with an elongin-like protein to regulate the stability of PKA and PKG in the model apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii. Defects attributed to SPARK depletion develop after PKG and PKA are down-regulated. Parasites lacking SPARK differentiate into the chronic form of infection, which may arise from reduced activity of a coccidian-specific PKA ortholog. This work delineates the signaling topology of AGC kinases that together control transitions within the asexual cycle of this important family of parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice L Herneisen
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Michelle L Peters
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Tyler A Smith
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Emily Shortt
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
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4
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Liu Y, Jiang JJ, Du SY, Mu LS, Fan JJ, Hu JC, Ye Y, Ding M, Zhou WY, Yu QH, Xia YF, Xu HY, Shi YJ, Qian SW, Tang Y, Li W, Dang YJ, Dong X, Li XY, Xu CJ, Tang QQ. Artemisinins ameliorate polycystic ovarian syndrome by mediating LONP1-CYP11A1 interaction. Science 2024; 384:eadk5382. [PMID: 38870290 DOI: 10.1126/science.adk5382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), a prevalent reproductive disorder in women of reproductive age, features androgen excess, ovulatory dysfunction, and polycystic ovaries. Despite its high prevalence, specific pharmacologic intervention for PCOS is challenging. In this study, we identified artemisinins as anti-PCOS agents. Our finding demonstrated the efficacy of artemisinin derivatives in alleviating PCOS symptoms in both rodent models and human patients, curbing hyperandrogenemia through suppression of ovarian androgen synthesis. Artemisinins promoted cytochrome P450 family 11 subfamily A member 1 (CYP11A1) protein degradation to block androgen overproduction. Mechanistically, artemisinins directly targeted lon peptidase 1 (LONP1), enhanced LONP1-CYP11A1 interaction, and facilitated LONP1-catalyzed CYP11A1 degradation. Overexpression of LONP1 replicated the androgen-lowering effect of artemisinins. Our data suggest that artemisinin application is a promising approach for treating PCOS and highlight the crucial role of the LONP1-CYP11A1 interaction in controlling hyperandrogenism and PCOS occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jing-Jing Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shao-Yue Du
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Disease, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Liang-Shan Mu
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jian-Jun Fan
- Basic Medicine Research and Innovation Center for Novel Target and Therapeutic Intervention, Ministry of Education, Institute of Life Sciences, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Jun-Chi Hu
- Basic Medicine Research and Innovation Center for Novel Target and Therapeutic Intervention, Ministry of Education, Institute of Life Sciences, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Yao Ye
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Meng Ding
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wei-Yu Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qiu-Han Yu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
| | - Yi-Fan Xia
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Hong-Yu Xu
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yi-Jie Shi
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shu-Wen Qian
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yan Tang
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211198, China
| | - Yong-Jun Dang
- Basic Medicine Research and Innovation Center for Novel Target and Therapeutic Intervention, Ministry of Education, Institute of Life Sciences, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400010, China
| | - Xi Dong
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiao-Ying Li
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Cong-Jian Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Disease, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qi-Qun Tang
- Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular Medicine of the Ministry of Education, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of School of Basic Medical Sciences and Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism of Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
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5
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Key J, Gispert S, Auburger G. Knockout Mouse Studies Show That Mitochondrial CLPP Peptidase and CLPX Unfoldase Act in Matrix Condensates near IMM, as Fast Stress Response in Protein Assemblies for Transcript Processing, Translation, and Heme Production. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:694. [PMID: 38927630 PMCID: PMC11202940 DOI: 10.3390/genes15060694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
LONP1 is the principal AAA+ unfoldase and bulk protease in the mitochondrial matrix, so its deletion causes embryonic lethality. The AAA+ unfoldase CLPX and the peptidase CLPP also act in the matrix, especially during stress periods, but their substrates are poorly defined. Mammalian CLPP deletion triggers infertility, deafness, growth retardation, and cGAS-STING-activated cytosolic innate immunity. CLPX mutations impair heme biosynthesis and heavy metal homeostasis. CLPP and CLPX are conserved from bacteria to humans, despite their secondary role in proteolysis. Based on recent proteomic-metabolomic evidence from knockout mice and patient cells, we propose that CLPP acts on phase-separated ribonucleoprotein granules and CLPX on multi-enzyme condensates as first-aid systems near the inner mitochondrial membrane. Trimming within assemblies, CLPP rescues stalled processes in mitoribosomes, mitochondrial RNA granules and nucleoids, and the D-foci-mediated degradation of toxic double-stranded mtRNA/mtDNA. Unfolding multi-enzyme condensates, CLPX maximizes PLP-dependent delta-transamination and rescues malformed nascent peptides. Overall, their actions occur in granules with multivalent or hydrophobic interactions, separated from the aqueous phase. Thus, the role of CLPXP in the matrix is compartment-selective, as other mitochondrial peptidases: MPPs at precursor import pores, m-AAA and i-AAA at either IMM face, PARL within the IMM, and OMA1/HTRA2 in the intermembrane space.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Georg Auburger
- Experimental Neurology, Clinic of Neurology, University Hospital, Goethe University Frankfurt, Heinrich Hoffmann Str. 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (J.K.); (S.G.)
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6
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Herneisen AL, Peters ML, Smith TA, Shortt E, Lourido S. SPARK regulates AGC kinases central to the Toxoplasma gondii asexual cycle. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.30.564746. [PMID: 37961644 PMCID: PMC10634940 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.30.564746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites balance proliferation, persistence, and spread in their metazoan hosts. AGC kinases, such as PKG, PKA, and the PDK1 ortholog SPARK, integrate environmental signals to toggle parasites between replicative and motile life stages. Recent studies have cataloged pathways downstream of apicomplexan PKG and PKA; however, less is known about the global integration of AGC kinase signaling cascades. Here, conditional genetics coupled to unbiased proteomics demonstrates that SPARK complexes with an elongin-like protein to regulate the stability of PKA and PKG in the model apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii. Defects attributed to SPARK depletion develop after PKG and PKA are down-regulated. Parasites lacking SPARK differentiate into the chronic form of infection, which may arise from reduced activity of a coccidian-specific PKA ortholog. This work delineates the signaling topology of AGC kinases that together control transitions within the asexual cycle of this important family of parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice L. Herneisen
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
| | - Michelle L. Peters
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
| | - Tyler A. Smith
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
| | - Emily Shortt
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA
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7
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Lucky AB, Wang C, Li X, Liang X, Muneer A, Miao J. Transforming the CRISPR/dCas9-based gene regulation technique into a forward screening tool in Plasmodium falciparum. iScience 2024; 27:109602. [PMID: 38617559 PMCID: PMC11015506 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024] Open
Abstract
It is a significant challenge to assess the functions of many uncharacterized genes in human malaria parasites. Here, we present a genetic screening tool to assess the contribution of essential genes from Plasmodium falciparum by the conditional CRISPR-/deadCas9-based interference and activation (i/a) systems. We screened both CRISPRi and CRISPRa sets, consisting of nine parasite lines per set targeting nine genes via their respective gRNAs. By conducting amplicon sequencing of gRNA loci, we identified the contribution of each targeted gene to parasite fitness upon drug (artemisinin, chloroquine) and stress (starvation, heat shock) treatment. The screening was highly reproducible, and the screening libraries were easily generated by transfection of mixed plasmids expressing different gRNAs. We demonstrated that this screening is straightforward, robust, and can provide a fast and efficient tool to study essential genes that have long presented a bottleneck in assessing their functions using existing genetic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amuza Byaruhanga Lucky
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Chengqi Wang
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Xiaolian Li
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Xiaoying Liang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Azhar Muneer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Jun Miao
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Diseases Research, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, 3720 Spectrum Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
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8
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Guo X, Ji N, Guo Q, Wang M, Du H, Pan J, Xiao L, Gupta N, Feng Y, Xia N. Metabolic plasticity, essentiality and therapeutic potential of ribose-5-phosphate synthesis in Toxoplasma gondii. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2999. [PMID: 38589375 PMCID: PMC11001932 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47097-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Ribose-5-phosphate (R5P) is a precursor for nucleic acid biogenesis; however, the importance and homeostasis of R5P in the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii remain enigmatic. Here, we show that the cytoplasmic sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (SBPase) is dispensable. Still, its co-deletion with transaldolase (TAL) impairs the double mutant's growth and increases 13C-glucose-derived flux into pentose sugars via the transketolase (TKT) enzyme. Deletion of the latter protein affects the parasite's fitness but is not lethal and is correlated with an increased carbon flux via the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway. Further, loss of TKT leads to a decline in 13C incorporation into glycolysis and the TCA cycle, resulting in a decrease in ATP levels and the inability of phosphoribosyl-pyrophosphate synthetase (PRPS) to convert R5P into 5'-phosphoribosyl-pyrophosphate and thereby contribute to the production of AMP and IMP. Likewise, PRPS is essential for the lytic cycle. Not least, we show that RuPE-mediated metabolic compensation is imperative for the survival of the ΔsbpaseΔtal strain. In conclusion, we demonstrate that multiple routes can flexibly supply R5P to enable parasite growth and identify catalysis by TKT and PRPS as critical enzymatic steps. Our work provides novel biological and therapeutic insights into the network design principles of intracellular parasitism in a clinically-relevant pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefang Guo
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nuo Ji
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qinghong Guo
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mengting Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huiyu Du
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiajia Pan
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lihua Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nishith Gupta
- Intracellular Parasite Education and Research Labs (iPEARL), Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS-P), Hyderabad, India.
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Yaoyu Feng
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Ningbo Xia
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.
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9
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Dong H, Yang J, He K, Zheng WB, Lai DH, Liu J, Ding HY, Wu RB, Brown KM, Hide G, Lun ZR, Zhu XQ, Long S. The Toxoplasma monocarboxylate transporters are involved in the metabolism within the apicoplast and are linked to parasite survival. eLife 2024; 12:RP88866. [PMID: 38502570 PMCID: PMC10950331 DOI: 10.7554/elife.88866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The apicoplast is a four-membrane plastid found in the apicomplexans, which harbors biosynthesis and organelle housekeeping activities in the matrix. However, the mechanism driving the flux of metabolites, in and out, remains unknown. Here, we used TurboID and genome engineering to identify apicoplast transporters in Toxoplasma gondii. Among the many novel transporters, we show that one pair of apicomplexan monocarboxylate transporters (AMTs) appears to have evolved from a putative host cell that engulfed a red alga. Protein depletion showed that AMT1 and AMT2 are critical for parasite growth. Metabolite analyses supported the notion that AMT1 and AMT2 are associated with biosynthesis of isoprenoids and fatty acids. However, stronger phenotypic defects were observed for AMT2, including in the inability to establish T. gondii parasite virulence in mice. This study clarifies, significantly, the mystery of apicoplast transporter composition and reveals the importance of the pair of AMTs in maintaining the apicoplast activity in apicomplexans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Dong
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, and College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jiong Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Kai He
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, and College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Wen-Bin Zheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural UniversityTaiguChina
| | - De-Hua Lai
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Jing Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, and College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Hui-Yong Ding
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, and College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Rui-Bin Wu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, and College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Kevin M Brown
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences CenterOklahoma CityUnited States
| | - Geoff Hide
- Biomedical Research and Innovation Centre and Environmental Research and Innovation Centre, School of Science, Engineering and Environment, University of SalfordSalfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Zhao-Rong Lun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural UniversityTaiguChina
| | - Shaojun Long
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, and College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
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10
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Herrmann L, Leidenberger M, Sacramento de Morais A, Mai C, Çapci A, da Cruz Borges Silva M, Plass F, Kahnt A, Moreira DRM, Kappes B, Tsogoeva SB. Autofluorescent antimalarials by hybridization of artemisinin and coumarin: in vitro/ in vivo studies and live-cell imaging. Chem Sci 2023; 14:12941-12952. [PMID: 38023498 PMCID: PMC10664590 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc03661h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria is one of our planet's most widespread and deadliest diseases, and there is an ever-consistent need for new and improved pharmaceuticals. Natural products have been an essential source of hit and lead compounds for drug discovery. Antimalarial drug artemisinin (ART), a highly effective natural product, is an enantiopure sesquiterpene lactone and occurs in Artemisia annua L. The development of improved antimalarial drugs, which are highly potent and at the same time inherently fluorescent is particularly favorable and highly desirable since they can be used for live-cell imaging, avoiding the requirement of the drug's linkage to an external fluorescent label. Herein, we present the first antimalarial autofluorescent artemisinin-coumarin hybrids with high fluorescence quantum yields of up to 0.94 and exhibiting excellent activity in vitro against CQ-resistant and multidrug-resistant P. falciparum strains (IC50 (Dd2) down to 0.5 nM; IC50 (K1) down to 0.3 nM) compared to reference drugs CQ (IC50 (Dd2) 165.3 nM; IC50 (K1) 302.8 nM) and artemisinin (IC50 (Dd2) 11.3 nM; IC50 (K1) 5.4 nM). Furthermore, a clear correlation between in vitro potency and in vivo efficacy of antimalarial autofluorescent hybrids was demonstrated. Moreover, deliberately designed autofluorescent artemisinin-coumarin hybrids, were not only able to overcome drug resistance, they were also of high value in investigating their mode of action via time-dependent imaging resolution in living P. falciparum-infected red blood cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Herrmann
- Organic Chemistry Chair I and Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular Materials (ICMM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Straße 10 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | - Maria Leidenberger
- Institute of Medical Biotechnology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Paul-Gordon-Straße 3 91052 Erlangen Germany
| | | | - Christina Mai
- Organic Chemistry Chair I and Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular Materials (ICMM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Straße 10 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | - Aysun Çapci
- Organic Chemistry Chair I and Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular Materials (ICMM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Straße 10 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | | | - Fabian Plass
- Leibniz Institute of Surface Engineering (IOM) Permoserstrasse 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
- Physical Chemistry Chair I, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Egerlandstrasse 3 91058 Erlangen Germany
| | - Axel Kahnt
- Leibniz Institute of Surface Engineering (IOM) Permoserstrasse 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
- Physical Chemistry Chair I, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Egerlandstrasse 3 91058 Erlangen Germany
| | - Diogo R M Moreira
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Salvador 40296-710 Brazil
| | - Barbara Kappes
- Institute of Medical Biotechnology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Paul-Gordon-Straße 3 91052 Erlangen Germany
| | - Svetlana B Tsogoeva
- Organic Chemistry Chair I and Interdisciplinary Center for Molecular Materials (ICMM), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Straße 10 91054 Erlangen Germany
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11
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Munnik BL, Kaschula CH, Harding CR, Chellan P. Investigation of new ferrocenyl-artesunate derivatives as antiparasitics. Dalton Trans 2023; 52:15786-15797. [PMID: 37681434 PMCID: PMC10628858 DOI: 10.1039/d3dt02254d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Artesunate (Ars) is a semisynthetic antimalarial drug and is a part of the artemisinin-based combination therapy arsenal employed for malaria treatment. The drug functions mainly by activation of its endoperoxide bridge leading to increased oxidative stress in malaria parasites. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the antiparasitic effects of combining ferrocene and Arsvia short or long chain ester or amide linkages (C1-C4). The compounds were evaluated for growth inhibition activity on the apicomplexan parasites, Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) and Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). All the complexes demonstrated good activity against T. gondii with IC50 values in the low micromolar range (0.28-1.2 μM) and good to excellent antimalarial activity against a chloroquine sensitive strain of P. falciparum (NF54). Further investigations on T. gondii revealed that the likely mode of action (MoA) is through the generation of reactive oxygen species. Additionally, immunofluorescence microscopy suggested a novel change in the morphology of the parasite by complex C3, an artesunate-ferrocenyl ethyl amide complex. The complexes were not cytotoxic or showed low cytotoxicity to two normal cell lines tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon L Munnik
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa.
| | - Catherine H Kaschula
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa.
| | - Clare R Harding
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and inflammation, University of Glasgow, UK
| | - Prinessa Chellan
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa.
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12
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Giuliano CJ, Wei KJ, Harling FM, Waldman BS, Farringer MA, Boydston EA, Lan TCT, Thomas RW, Herneisen AL, Sanderlin AG, Coppens I, Dvorin JD, Lourido S. Functional profiling of the Toxoplasma genome during acute mouse infection. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.03.05.531216. [PMID: 36945434 PMCID: PMC10028831 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.05.531216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Within a host, pathogens encounter a diverse and changing landscape of cell types, nutrients, and immune responses. Examining host-pathogen interactions in animal models can therefore reveal aspects of infection absent from cell culture. We use CRISPR-based screens to functionally profile the entire genome of the model apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii during mouse infection. Barcoded gRNAs were used to track mutant parasite lineages, enabling detection of bottlenecks and mapping of population structures. We uncovered over 300 genes that modulate parasite fitness in mice with previously unknown roles in infection. These candidates span multiple axes of host-parasite interaction, including determinants of tropism, host organelle remodeling, and metabolic rewiring. We mechanistically characterized three novel candidates, including GTP cyclohydrolase I, against which a small-molecule inhibitor could be repurposed as an antiparasitic compound. This compound exhibited antiparasitic activity against T. gondii and Plasmodium falciparum, the most lethal agent of malaria. Taken together, we present the first complete survey of an apicomplexan genome during infection of an animal host, and point to novel interfaces of host-parasite interaction that may offer new avenues for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kenneth J. Wei
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA
| | - Faye M. Harling
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA
| | | | - Madeline A. Farringer
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Biological Sciences in Public Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | | | - Raina W. Thomas
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA
| | - Alice L. Herneisen
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA
| | | | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD
| | - Jeffrey D. Dvorin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute, Cambridge, MA
- Biology Department, MIT, Cambridge, MA
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13
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Wan W, Dong H, Lai DH, Yang J, He K, Tang X, Liu Q, Hide G, Zhu XQ, Sibley LD, Lun ZR, Long S. The Toxoplasma micropore mediates endocytosis for selective nutrient salvage from host cell compartments. Nat Commun 2023; 14:977. [PMID: 36813769 PMCID: PMC9947163 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36571-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasite growth and replication relies on nutrient acquisition from host cells, in which intracellular multiplication occurs, yet the mechanisms that underlie the nutrient salvage remain elusive. Numerous ultrastructural studies have documented a plasma membrane invagination with a dense neck, termed the micropore, on the surface of intracellular parasites. However, the function of this structure remains unknown. Here we validate the micropore as an essential organelle for endocytosis of nutrients from the host cell cytosol and Golgi in the model apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii. Detailed analyses demonstrated that Kelch13 is localized at the dense neck of the organelle and functions as a protein hub at the micropore for endocytic uptake. Intriguingly, maximal activity of the micropore requires the ceramide de novo synthesis pathway in the parasite. Thus, this study provides insights into the machinery underlying acquisition of host cell-derived nutrients by apicomplexan parasites that are otherwise sequestered from host cell compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyan Wan
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Dong
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - De-Hua Lai
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Jiong Yang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Kai He
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyan Tang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Qun Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Geoff Hide
- Biomedical Research and Innovation Centre and Environmental Research and Innovation Centre, School of Science, Engineering and Environment, University of Salford, Salford, M5 4WT, UK
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030801, Shanxi, China
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO, 63110-1093, USA
| | - Zhao-Rong Lun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Shaojun Long
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security and School of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China.
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14
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Fu X, He Y, Xie Y, Lu Z. A conjoint analysis of bulk RNA-seq and single-nucleus RNA-seq for revealing the role of ferroptosis and iron metabolism in ALS. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1113216. [PMID: 36937665 PMCID: PMC10017473 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1113216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive and selective degeneration of motor neurons in the motor cortex of brain and spinal cord. Ferroptosis is a newly discovered form of cell death and reported to mediate selective motor neuron death in the mouse model of ALS. The growing awareness of ferroptosis and iron metabolism dysfunction in ALS prompted us to investigate the expression pattern of ferroptosis and iron metabolism-related genes (FIRGs) in ALS. Here, we performed a conjoint analysis of bulk-RNA sequence and single-nucleus RNA sequence data using the datasets from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) to reveal the role of FIRGs in ALS, especially in selective motor neuron death of ALS. We first investigated the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between ALS and non-neurological controls. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis constructed the gene co-expression network and identified three modules closely associated with ALS. Fifteen FIRGs was identified as target genes based on least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression analysis as follows: ACSL4, ANO6, ATP6V0E1, B2M, CD44, CHMP5, CYBB, CYBRD1, HIF1A, MOSPD1, NCF2, SDCBP, STEAP2, TMEM14C, ULK1. These genes could differentiate ALS patients from non-neurological controls (p < 2.2e-16) and had a valid value in predicting and diagnosing ALS (AUC = 0.881 in primary dataset and AUC = 0.768 in validation dataset). Then we performed the functional enrichment analysis of DEGs between ALS cases, the most significantly influenced by target genes, and non-neurological controls. The result indicated that the most significantly influenced functions in ALS pathogenesis by these identified FIRGs are synapse pathways, calcium signaling pathway, cAMP signaling pathway, and phagosome and several immune pathways. At last, the analysis of single- nuclear seq found that CHMP5, one of the 15 FIRGs identified by bulk single-nucleus RNA-seq data, was expressed significantly higher in ALS than pathologically normal (PN), specifically in excitatory neuron populations with layer 2 and layer 3 markers (Ex L2_L3), layer 3 and layer 5 markers (Ex L3_L5). Taken together, our study indicates the positive correlation between FIRGs and ALS, presents potential markers for ALS diagnosis and provides new research directions of CHMP5 function in selective motor neuron death in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiujuan Fu
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yizi He
- Department of Lymphoma and Hematology, Hunan Cancer Hospital, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yongzhi Xie
- Department of Radiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Yongzhi Xie,
| | - Zuneng Lu
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Zuneng Lu,
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15
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Huang M, Cao X, Jiang Y, Shi Y, Ma Y, Hu D, Song X. Evaluation of the Combined Effect of Artemisinin and Ferroptosis Inducer RSL3 against Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010229. [PMID: 36613672 PMCID: PMC9820390 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread intracellular pathogen that infects humans and a variety of animals. Dihydroartemisinin (DHA), an effective anti-malarial drug, has potential anti-T. gondii activity that induces ferroptosis in tumor cells, but the mechanism by which it kills T. gondii is not fully understood. In this study, the mechanism of DHA inhibiting T. gondii growth and its possible drug combinations are described. DHA potently inhibited T. gondii with a half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) of 0.22 μM. DHA significantly increased the ROS level of parasites and decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential, which could be reversed by ferroptosis inhibitors (DFO). Moreover, the ferroptosis inducer RSL3 inhibited T. gondii with an EC50 of 0.75 μM. In addition, RSL3 enhanced the DHA-induced ROS level, and the combination of DHA and RSL3 significantly increased the anti-Toxoplasma effect as compared to DHA alone. In summary, we found that DHA-induced ROS accumulation in tachyzoites may be an important cause of T. gondii growth inhibition. Furthermore, we found that the combination of DHA and RSL3 may be an alternative to toxoplasmosis. These results will provide a new strategy for anti-Toxoplasma drug screening and clinical medication guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mao Huang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Xinru Cao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Yucong Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Yuehong Shi
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Yazhen Ma
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Dandan Hu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Engineering Research Center of Veterinary Biologics, Nanning 530004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Animal Reproduction, Breeding and Disease Control, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Xingju Song
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Engineering Research Center of Veterinary Biologics, Nanning 530004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Animal Reproduction, Breeding and Disease Control, Nanning 530004, China
- Correspondence:
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16
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Müller J, Schlange C, Heller M, Uldry AC, Braga-Lagache S, Haynes RK, Hemphill A. Proteomic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii ME49 derived strains resistant to the artemisinin derivatives artemiside and artemisone implies potential mode of action independent of ROS formation. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2022; 21:1-12. [PMID: 36512904 PMCID: PMC9763631 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2022.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin and its amino-artemisinin derivatives artemiside (GC008) and artemisone (GC003) are potent antimalarials. The mode of action of artemisinins against Plasmodium sp is popularly ascribed to 'activation' of the peroxide group by heme-Fe(II) or labile Fe(II) to generate C-radicals that alkylate parasite proteins. An alternative postulate is that artemisinins elicit formation of reactive oxygen species by interfering with flavin disulfide reductases resposible for maintaining intraparasitic redox homeostasis. However, in contradistinction to the heme-activation mechanism, the amino-artemisinins are effective in vitro against non-heme-degrading apicomplexan parasites including T. gondii, with IC 50 values of 50-70 nM, and induce distinct ultrastructural alterations. However, T. gondii strains readily adapted to increased concentrations (2.5 μM) of these two compounds within few days. Thus, T. gondii strains that were resistant against artemisone and artemiside were generated by treating the T. gondii reference strain ME49 with stepwise increasing amounts of these compounds, yielding the artemisone resistant strain GC003R and the artemiside resistant strain GC008R. Differential analyses of the proteomes of these resistant strains compared to the wildtype ME49 revealed that 215 proteins were significantly downregulated in artemisone resistant tachyzoites and only 8 proteins in artemiside resistant tachyzoites as compared to their wildtype. Two proteins, namely a hypothetical protein encoded by ORF TGME49_236950, and the rhoptry neck protein RON2 encoded by ORF TGME49_300100 were downregulated in both resistant strains. Interestingly, eight proteins involved in ROS scavenging including catalase and superoxide dismutase were amongst the differentially downregulated proteins in the artemisone-resistant strain. In parallel, ROS formation was significantly enhanced in isolated tachyzoites from the artemisone resistant strain and - to a lesser extent - in tachyzoites from the artemiside resistant strain as compared to wildtype tachyzoites. These findings suggest that amino-artemisinin derivatives display a mechanism of action in T. gondii distinct from Plasmodium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Müller
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Bern, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Carling Schlange
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Bern, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Manfred Heller
- Proteomics & Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15, CH-3010, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Christine Uldry
- Proteomics & Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15, CH-3010, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sophie Braga-Lagache
- Proteomics & Mass Spectrometry Core Facility, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15, CH-3010, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Richard K Haynes
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Andrew Hemphill
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Bern, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012, Bern, Switzerland.
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17
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Ring-stage growth arrest: Metabolic basis of artemisinin tolerance in Plasmodium falciparum. iScience 2022; 26:105725. [PMID: 36579133 PMCID: PMC9791339 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence and spread of artemisinin-tolerant malaria parasites threatens malaria control programmes worldwide. Mutations in the propeller domain of the Kelch13 protein confer Plasmodium falciparum artemisinin resistance (ART-R). ART-R is linked to the reduced susceptibility of temporary growth-arrested ring-stage parasites, but the metabolic mechanisms remain elusive. We generated two PfKelch13 mutant lines via CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing which displayed a reduced susceptibility accompanied by an extended ring stage. The metabolome of ART-induced ring-stage growth arrest parasites carrying PfKelch13 mutations showed significant alterations in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, glycolysis, and amino acids metabolism, pointing to altered energy and porphyrin metabolism with metabolic plasticity. The critical role of these pathways was further confirmed by altering metabolic flow or through chemical inhibition. Our findings uncover that the growth arrestment associated with ART-R is potentially attributed to the adaptative metabolic plasticity, indicating that the defined metabolic remodeling turns out to be the trigger for ART-R.
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18
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Walsh D, Katris NJ, Sheiner L, Botté CY. Toxoplasma metabolic flexibility in different growth conditions. Trends Parasitol 2022; 38:775-790. [PMID: 35718642 PMCID: PMC10506913 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2022.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites have complex metabolic networks that coordinate acquisition of metabolites by de novo synthesis and by scavenging from the host. Toxoplasma gondii has a wide host range and may rely on the flexibility of this metabolic network. Currently, the literature categorizes genes as essential or dispensable according to their dispensability for parasite survival under nutrient-replete in vitro conditions. However, recent studies revealed correlations between medium composition and gene essentiality. Therefore, nutrient availability in the host environment likely determines the requirement of metabolic pathways, which may redefine priorities for drug target identification in a clinical setting. Here we review the recent work characterizing some of the major Toxoplasma metabolic pathways and their functional adaptation to host nutrient content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Walsh
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Nicholas J Katris
- ApicoLipid Team, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, CNRS UMR5309, Université Grenoble Alpes, INSERM U1209, Grenoble, France
| | - Lilach Sheiner
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Cyrille Y Botté
- ApicoLipid Team, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, CNRS UMR5309, Université Grenoble Alpes, INSERM U1209, Grenoble, France.
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19
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Herneisen AL, Li ZH, Chan AW, Moreno SNJ, Lourido S. Temporal and thermal profiling of the Toxoplasma proteome implicates parasite Protein Phosphatase 1 in the regulation of Ca 2+-responsive pathways. eLife 2022; 11:e80336. [PMID: 35976251 PMCID: PMC9436416 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites cause persistent mortality and morbidity worldwide through diseases including malaria, toxoplasmosis, and cryptosporidiosis. Ca2+ signaling pathways have been repurposed in these eukaryotic pathogens to regulate parasite-specific cellular processes governing the replicative and lytic phases of the infectious cycle, as well as the transition between them. Despite the presence of conserved Ca2+-responsive proteins, little is known about how specific signaling elements interact to impact pathogenesis. We mapped the Ca2+-responsive proteome of the model apicomplexan Taxoplasma gondii via time-resolved phosphoproteomics and thermal proteome profiling. The waves of phosphoregulation following PKG activation and stimulated Ca2+ release corroborate known physiological changes but identify specific proteins operating in these pathways. Thermal profiling of parasite extracts identified many expected Ca2+-responsive proteins, such as parasite Ca2+-dependent protein kinases. Our approach also identified numerous Ca2+-responsive proteins that are not predicted to bind Ca2+, yet are critical components of the parasite signaling network. We characterized protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) as a Ca2+-responsive enzyme that relocalized to the parasite apex upon Ca2+ store release. Conditional depletion of PP1 revealed that the phosphatase regulates Ca2+ uptake to promote parasite motility. PP1 may thus be partly responsible for Ca2+-regulated serine/threonine phosphatase activity in apicomplexan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice L Herneisen
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
- Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
| | - Zhu-Hong Li
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of GeorgiaAthensUnited States
| | - Alex W Chan
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of GeorgiaAthensUnited States
| | - Silvia NJ Moreno
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of GeorgiaAthensUnited States
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical ResearchCambridgeUnited States
- Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeUnited States
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20
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Tsee Dawson A, Tonkin CJ. A CRISPR upgrade unlocks Toxoplasma gene function. Trends Parasitol 2022; 38:826-828. [PMID: 35973902 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2022.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Forward genetic screens are invaluable in describing gene function. CRISPR has reinvigorated phenotypic screens in Toxoplasma - a model apicomplexan parasite. Two recent papers by Smith et al. and Li et al. take the next big leap in performing forward genetic screens in Toxoplasma by combining conditional gene regulation with CRISPR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurelie Tsee Dawson
- The Division of Infectious Diseases and Immune Defense, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christopher J Tonkin
- The Division of Infectious Diseases and Immune Defense, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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21
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Jiang Y, Shi Y, Hu D, Song X. The anti-Toxoplasma activity of the plant natural phenolic compound piceatannol. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:972500. [PMID: 35982927 PMCID: PMC9379089 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.972500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan that infects the nucleated cells of warm-blooded animals and causes life-threatening disease in immunocompromised patients. Due to the limited effectiveness and prominent side effects of existing drugs, there is an urgent need to develop new therapeutic options against T. gondii. Piceatannol is a natural plant compound with multiple functions such as antibacterial, antileukemic and antiparasitic activities. In the present study, the anti-T. gondii activity of piceatannol was evaluated. Piceatannol potently inhibited Toxoplasma with a half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) of 28.10 μM. Piceatannol showed a significant inhibitory effect on intracellular proliferation, inhibiting intracellular parasites at a rate of 98.9% when treatment with 100 μM piceatannol. However, the invasion ability of tachyzoites was not affected by piceatannol. By immunofluorescence assay, we noted that the parasite showed abnormalities in cell division after exposure to piceatannol. To determine the in vivo effect of piceatannol on acute infection, a model was established by infecting BALB/c mice with the virulent RH strain of T. gondii. Mice infected with 500 tachyzoites showed a significant therapeutic effect when treated with 15 mg/kg of piceatannol. These results suggest that piceatannol is a promising drug for the treatment of T. gondii.
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22
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Chandana M, Anand A, Ghosh S, Das R, Beura S, Jena S, Suryawanshi AR, Padmanaban G, Nagaraj VA. Malaria parasite heme biosynthesis promotes and griseofulvin protects against cerebral malaria in mice. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4028. [PMID: 35821013 PMCID: PMC9276668 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31431-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme-biosynthetic pathway of malaria parasite is dispensable for asexual stages, but essential for mosquito and liver stages. Despite having backup mechanisms to acquire hemoglobin-heme, pathway intermediates and/or enzymes from the host, asexual parasites express heme pathway enzymes and synthesize heme. Here we show heme synthesized in asexual stages promotes cerebral pathogenesis by enhancing hemozoin formation. Hemozoin is a parasite molecule associated with inflammation, aberrant host-immune responses, disease severity and cerebral pathogenesis. The heme pathway knockout parasites synthesize less hemozoin, and mice infected with knockout parasites are protected from cerebral malaria and death due to anemia is delayed. Biosynthetic heme regulates food vacuole integrity and the food vacuoles from knockout parasites are compromised in pH, lipid unsaturation and proteins, essential for hemozoin formation. Targeting parasite heme synthesis by griseofulvin-a FDA-approved antifungal drug, prevents cerebral malaria in mice and provides an adjunct therapeutic option for cerebral and severe malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjunatha Chandana
- Infectious Disease Biology, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751023, Odisha, India
- School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Bhubaneswar, 751024, Odisha, India
| | - Aditya Anand
- Infectious Disease Biology, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751023, Odisha, India
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, Faridabad, 121001, Haryana, India
| | - Sourav Ghosh
- Infectious Disease Biology, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751023, Odisha, India
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, Faridabad, 121001, Haryana, India
| | - Rahul Das
- Infectious Disease Biology, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751023, Odisha, India
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, Faridabad, 121001, Haryana, India
| | - Subhashree Beura
- Infectious Disease Biology, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751023, Odisha, India
| | - Sarita Jena
- Infectious Disease Biology, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, 751023, Odisha, India
| | | | - Govindarajan Padmanaban
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, Karnataka, India
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23
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Ishizaki T, Hernandez S, Paoletta MS, Sanderson T, Bushell ES. CRISPR/Cas9 and genetic screens in malaria parasites: small genomes, big impact. Biochem Soc Trans 2022; 50:1069-1079. [PMID: 35621119 PMCID: PMC9246331 DOI: 10.1042/bst20210281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The ∼30 Mb genomes of the Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria each encode ∼5000 genes, but the functions of the majority remain unknown. This is due to a paucity of functional annotation from sequence homology, which is compounded by low genetic tractability compared with many model organisms. In recent years technical breakthroughs have made forward and reverse genome-scale screens in Plasmodium possible. Furthermore, the adaptation of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-Associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) technology has dramatically improved gene editing efficiency at the single gene level. Here, we review the arrival of genetic screens in malaria parasites to analyse parasite gene function at a genome-scale and their impact on understanding parasite biology. CRISPR/Cas9 screens, which have revolutionised human and model organism research, have not yet been implemented in malaria parasites due to the need for more complex CRISPR/Cas9 gene targeting vector libraries. We therefore introduce the reader to CRISPR-based screens in the related apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii and discuss how these approaches could be adapted to develop CRISPR/Cas9 based genome-scale genetic screens in malaria parasites. Moreover, since more than half of Plasmodium genes are required for normal asexual blood-stage reproduction, and cannot be targeted using knockout methods, we discuss how CRISPR/Cas9 could be used to scale up conditional gene knockdown approaches to systematically assign function to essential genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Ishizaki
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
- The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sophia Hernandez
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
- The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå, Sweden
| | - Martina S. Paoletta
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
- The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå, Sweden
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular (IABIMO), INTA - CONICET, Hurlingham, Argentina
| | - Theo Sanderson
- Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Rd, London NW1 1AT, U.K
| | - Ellen S.C. Bushell
- Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
- The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå, Sweden
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24
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Kent RS, Briggs EM, Colon BL, Alvarez C, Silva Pereira S, De Niz M. Paving the Way: Contributions of Big Data to Apicomplexan and Kinetoplastid Research. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:900878. [PMID: 35734575 PMCID: PMC9207352 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.900878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the age of big data an important question is how to ensure we make the most out of the resources we generate. In this review, we discuss the major methods used in Apicomplexan and Kinetoplastid research to produce big datasets and advance our understanding of Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, Trypanosoma and Leishmania biology. We debate the benefits and limitations of the current technologies, and propose future advancements that may be key to improving our use of these techniques. Finally, we consider the difficulties the field faces when trying to make the most of the abundance of data that has already been, and will continue to be, generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn S. Kent
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States
| | - Emma M. Briggs
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Beatrice L. Colon
- Wellcome Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Catalina Alvarez
- de Duve Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sara Silva Pereira
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Mariana De Niz
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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25
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Zhu P, Zhou B. The Antagonizing Role of Heme in the Antimalarial Function of Artemisinin: Elevating Intracellular Free Heme Negatively Impacts Artemisinin Activity in Plasmodium falciparum. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27061755. [PMID: 35335120 PMCID: PMC8949904 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27061755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The rich source of heme within malarial parasites has been considered to underly the action specificity of artemisinin. We reasoned that increasing intraparasitic free heme levels might further sensitize the parasites to artemisinin. Various means, such as modulating heme synthesis, degradation, polymerization, or hemoglobin digestion, were tried to boost intracellular heme levels, and under several scenarios, free heme levels were significantly augmented. Interestingly, all results arrived at the same conclusion, i.e., elevating heme acted in a strongly negative way, impacting the antimalarial action of artemisinin, but exerted no effect on several other antimalarial drugs. Suppression of the elevated free heme level by introducing heme oxygenase expression effectively restored artemisinin potency. Consistently, zinc protoporphyrin IX/zinc mesoporphyrin, as analogues of heme, drastically increased free heme levels and, concomitantly, the EC50 values of artemisinin. We were unable to effectively mitigate free heme levels, possibly due to an unknown compensating heme uptake pathway, as evidenced by our observation of efficient uptake of a fluorescent heme homologue by the parasite. Our results thus indicate the existence of an effective and mutually compensating heme homeostasis network in the parasites, including an uncharacterized heme uptake pathway, to maintain a certain level of free heme and that augmentation of the free heme level negatively impacts the antimalarial action of artemisinin. Importance: It is commonly believed that heme is critical in activating the antimalarial action of artemisinins. In this work, we show that elevating free heme levels in the malarial parasites surprisingly negatively impacts the action of artemisinin. We tried to boost free heme levels with various means, such as by modulating heme synthesis, heme polymerization, hemoglobin degradation and using heme analogues. Whenever we saw elevation of free heme levels, reduction in artemisinin potency was also observed. The homeostasis of heme appears to be complex, as there exists an unidentified heme uptake pathway in the parasites, nullifying our attempts to effectively reduce intraparasitic free heme levels. Our results thus indicate that too much heme is not good for the antimalarial action of artemisinins. This research can help us better understand the biological properties of this mysterious drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China;
| | - Bing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China;
- Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Correspondence:
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26
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Herneisen AL, Lourido S. Thermal Proteome Profiling to Identify Protein-ligand Interactions in the Apicomplexan Parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Bio Protoc 2021; 11:e4207. [PMID: 34859122 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a single-celled eukaryotic parasite that chronically infects a quarter of the global population. In recent years, phenotypic screens have identified compounds that block parasite replication. Unraveling the pathways and molecular mechanisms perturbed by such compounds requires target deconvolution. In parasites, such deconvolution has been achieved via chemogenomic approaches-for example, directed evolution followed by whole-genome sequencing or genome-wide knockout screens. As a proteomic alternative that directly probes the physical interaction between compound and protein, thermal proteome profiling (TPP), also known as the cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA), recently emerged as a method to identify small molecule-target interactions in living cells and cell extracts in a variety of organisms, including unicellular eukaryotic pathogens. Ligand binding induces a thermal stability shift-stabilizing or destabilizing proteins that change conformationally in response to the ligand-that can be measured by mass spectrometry (MS). Cells are incubated with different concentrations of ligand and heated, causing thermal denaturation of proteins. The soluble protein is extracted and quantified with multiplexed, quantitative MS, resulting in thousands of thermal denaturation profiles. Proteins engaging the ligand can be identified by their compound-dependent thermal shift. The protocol provided here can be used to identify ligand-target interactions and assess the impact of environmental or genetic perturbations on the thermal stability of the proteome in T. gondii and other eukaryotic pathogens. Graphic abstract: Thermal proteome profiling for target identification in the apicomplexan parasite T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice L Herneisen
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, United States.,Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, United States.,Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
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27
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Wittlin S, Mäser P. From Magic Bullet to Magic Bomb: Reductive Bioactivation of Antiparasitic Agents. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:2777-2786. [PMID: 34472830 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.1c00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Paul Ehrlich coined the term "magic bullet" to describe how a drug kills the parasite inside its human host without harming the host itself. Ehrlich concluded that the drug must have a greater affinity to the parasite than to human cells. Today, the specificity of drug action is understood in terms of the drug target. An ideal target is a protein that is essential for the proliferation of the pathogen but absent in human cells. Examples are the enzymes of folate synthesis or of the nonmevalonate pathway in the malaria parasites. However, there are other ways how a drug can kill selectively. Of particular relevance is the specific activation of a prodrug inside the pathogen but not in the host, as this is how the current frontrunners of parasite chemotherapy work. Artemisinins for malaria, fexinidazole for human African trypanosomiasis, benznidazole for Chagas' disease, metronidazole for intestinal protozoa: these molecules are "magic bombs" that are triggered selectively. They are prodrugs that need to be activated by chemical reduction, i.e., the acquisition of an electron, which occurs in the parasite. Such a mode of action is shared by the novel antimalarial peroxides arterolane and artefenomel, which are activated by reduction of the endoperoxide bond with ferrous heme as the likely electron donor, a metabolic end-product of Plasmodium falciparum. Here we provide an overview on the molecular basis of selectivity of antiparasitic drug action with particular reference to the ozonides, the new generation of antimalarial peroxides designed by Jonathan Vennerstrom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Wittlin
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
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28
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Synthesis and biological evaluation of antimalarial and antileukemic activity of new C-10 modified artemisinin derivatives. Tetrahedron 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2021.132410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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29
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Siddiqui FA, Liang X, Cui L. Plasmodium falciparum resistance to ACTs: Emergence, mechanisms, and outlook. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2021; 16:102-118. [PMID: 34090067 PMCID: PMC8188179 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2021.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Emergence and spread of resistance in Plasmodium falciparum to the frontline treatment artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) in the epicenter of multidrug resistance of Southeast Asia threaten global malaria control and elimination. Artemisinin (ART) resistance (or tolerance) is defined clinically as delayed parasite clearance after treatment with an ART drug. The resistance phenotype is restricted to the early ring stage and can be measured in vitro using a ring-stage survival assay. ART resistance is associated with mutations in the propeller domain of the Kelch family protein K13. As a pro-drug, ART is activated primarily by heme, which is mainly derived from hemoglobin digestion in the food vacuole. Activated ARTs can react promiscuously with a wide range of cellular targets, disrupting cellular protein homeostasis. Consistent with this mode of action for ARTs, the molecular mechanisms of K13-mediated ART resistance involve reduced hemoglobin uptake/digestion and increased cellular stress response. Mutations in other genes such as AP-2μ (adaptor protein-2 μ subunit), UBP-1 (ubiquitin-binding protein-1), and Falcipain 2a that interfere with hemoglobin uptake and digestion also increase resistance to ARTs. ART resistance has facilitated the development of resistance to the partner drugs, resulting in rapidly declining ACT efficacies. The molecular markers for resistance to the partner drugs are mostly associated with point mutations in the two food vacuole membrane transporters PfCRT and PfMDR1, and amplification of pfmdr1 and the two aspartic protease genes plasmepsin 2 and 3. It has been observed that mutations in these genes can have opposing effects on sensitivities to different partner drugs, which serve as the principle for designing triple ACTs and drug rotation. Although clinical ACT resistance is restricted to Southeast Asia, surveillance for drug resistance using in vivo clinical efficacy, in vitro assays, and molecular approaches is required to prevent or slow down the spread of resistant parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faiza Amber Siddiqui
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Xiaoying Liang
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Liwang Cui
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA.
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30
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Okombo J, Kanai M, Deni I, Fidock DA. Genomic and Genetic Approaches to Studying Antimalarial Drug Resistance and Plasmodium Biology. Trends Parasitol 2021; 37:476-492. [PMID: 33715941 PMCID: PMC8162148 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recent progress in genomics and molecular genetics has empowered novel approaches to study gene functions in disease-causing pathogens. In the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the application of genome-based analyses, site-directed genome editing, and genetic systems that allow for temporal and quantitative regulation of gene and protein expression have been invaluable in defining the genetic basis of antimalarial resistance and elucidating candidate targets to accelerate drug discovery efforts. Using examples from recent studies, we review applications of some of these approaches in advancing our understanding of Plasmodium biology and illustrate their contributions and limitations in characterizing parasite genomic loci associated with antimalarial drug responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Okombo
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mariko Kanai
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ioanna Deni
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - David A Fidock
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
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31
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Restructured Mitochondrial-Nuclear Interaction in Plasmodium falciparum Dormancy and Persister Survival after Artemisinin Exposure. mBio 2021; 12:e0075321. [PMID: 34044591 PMCID: PMC8262848 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00753-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Artemisinin and its semisynthetic derivatives (ART) are fast acting, potent antimalarials; however, their use in malaria treatment is frequently confounded by recrudescences from bloodstream Plasmodium parasites that enter into and later reactivate from a dormant persister state. Here, we provide evidence that the mitochondria of dihydroartemisinin (DHA)-exposed persisters are dramatically altered and enlarged relative to the mitochondria of young, actively replicating ring forms. Restructured mitochondrial-nuclear associations and an altered metabolic state are consistent with stress from reactive oxygen species. New contacts between the mitochondria and nuclei may support communication pathways of mitochondrial retrograde signaling, resulting in transcriptional changes in the nucleus as a survival response. Further characterization of the organelle communication and metabolic dependencies of persisters may suggest strategies to combat recrudescences of malaria after treatment.
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32
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Artemisinin-Based Drugs Target the Plasmodium falciparum Heme Detoxification Pathway. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:AAC.02137-20. [PMID: 33495226 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02137-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Artemisinin (ART)-based antimalarial drugs are believed to exert lethal effects on malarial parasites by alkylating a variety of intracellular molecular targets. Recent work with live parasites has shown that one of the alkylated targets is free heme within the parasite digestive vacuole, which is liberated upon hemoglobin catabolism by the intraerythrocytic parasite, and that reduced levels of heme alkylation occur in artemisinin-resistant parasites. One implication of heme alkylation is that these drugs may inhibit parasite detoxification of free heme via inhibition of heme-to-hemozoin crystallization; however, previous reports that have investigated this hypothesis present conflicting data. By controlling reducing conditions and, hence, the availability of ferrous versus ferric forms of free heme, we modify a previously reported hemozoin inhibition assay to quantify the ability of ART-based drugs to target the heme detoxification pathway under reduced versus oxidizing conditions. Contrary to some previous reports, we find that artemisinins are potent inhibitors of hemozoin crystallization, with effective half-maximal concentrations approximately an order of magnitude lower than those for most quinoline-based antimalarial drugs. We also examine hemozoin and in vitro parasite growth inhibition for drug pairs found in the most commonly used ART-based combination therapies (ACTs). All ACTs examined inhibit hemozoin crystallization in an additive fashion, and all but one inhibit parasite growth in an additive fashion.
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33
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Mok S, Stokes BH, Gnädig NF, Ross LS, Yeo T, Amaratunga C, Allman E, Solyakov L, Bottrill AR, Tripathi J, Fairhurst RM, Llinás M, Bozdech Z, Tobin AB, Fidock DA. Artemisinin-resistant K13 mutations rewire Plasmodium falciparum's intra-erythrocytic metabolic program to enhance survival. Nat Commun 2021; 12:530. [PMID: 33483501 PMCID: PMC7822823 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20805-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence and spread of artemisinin resistance, driven by mutations in Plasmodium falciparum K13, has compromised antimalarial efficacy and threatens the global malaria elimination campaign. By applying systems-based quantitative transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to a panel of isogenic K13 mutant or wild-type P. falciparum lines, we provide evidence that K13 mutations alter multiple aspects of the parasite's intra-erythrocytic developmental program. These changes impact cell-cycle periodicity, the unfolded protein response, protein degradation, vesicular trafficking, and mitochondrial metabolism. K13-mediated artemisinin resistance in the Cambodian Cam3.II line was reversed by atovaquone, a mitochondrial electron transport chain inhibitor. These results suggest that mitochondrial processes including damage sensing and anti-oxidant properties might augment the ability of mutant K13 to protect P. falciparum against artemisinin action by helping these parasites undergo temporary quiescence and accelerated growth recovery post drug elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachel Mok
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Barbara H Stokes
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Nina F Gnädig
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Leila S Ross
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tomas Yeo
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Chanaki Amaratunga
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Erik Allman
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Huck Center for Malaria Research, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Lev Solyakov
- Protein Nucleic Acid Laboratory, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Andrew R Bottrill
- Protein Nucleic Acid Laboratory, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Jaishree Tripathi
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Rick M Fairhurst
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Astra Zeneca, Gaithersburg, MD, 20878, USA
| | - Manuel Llinás
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Huck Center for Malaria Research, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Department of Chemistry, Huck Center for Malaria Research, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Zbynek Bozdech
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Andrew B Tobin
- The Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - David A Fidock
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA. .,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
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Windle ST, Lane KD, Gadalla NB, Liu A, Mu J, Caleon RL, Rahman RS, Sá JM, Wellems TE. Evidence for linkage of pfmdr1, pfcrt, and pfk13 polymorphisms to lumefantrine and mefloquine susceptibilities in a Plasmodium falciparum cross. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2020; 14:208-217. [PMID: 33197753 PMCID: PMC7677662 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2020.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lumefantrine and mefloquine are used worldwide in artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) of malaria. Better understanding of drug susceptibility and resistance is needed and can be obtained from studies of genetic crosses. METHODS Drug response phenotypes of a cross between Plasmodium falciparum lines 803 (Cambodia) and GB4 (Ghana) were obtained as half-maximal effective concentrations (EC50s) and days to recovery (DTR) after 24 h exposure to 500 nM lumefantrine. EC50s of mefloquine, halofantrine, chloroquine, and dihydroartemisinin were also determined. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis and statistical tests with candidate genes were used to identify polymorphisms associated with response phenotypes. RESULTS Lumefantrine EC50s averaged 5.8-fold higher for the 803 than GB4 parent, and DTR results were 3-5 and 16-18 days, respectively. In 803 × GB4 progeny, outcomes of these two lumefantrine assays showed strong inverse correlation; these phenotypes also correlated strongly with mefloquine and halofantrine EC50s. By QTL analysis, lumefantrine and mefloquine phenotypes mapped to a chromosome 5 region containing codon polymorphisms N86Y and Y184F in the P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 protein (PfMDR1). Statistical tests of candidate genes identified correlations between inheritance of PfK13 Kelch protein polymorphism C580Y (and possibly K189T) and lumefantrine and mefloquine susceptibilities. Correlations were detected between lumefantrine and chloroquine EC50s and polymorphisms N326S and I356T in the CVIET-type P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (PfCRT) common to 803 and GB4. CONCLUSIONS Correlations in this study suggest common mechanisms of action in lumefantrine, mefloquine, and halofantrine responses. PfK13 as well as PfMDR1 and PfCRT polymorphisms may affect access and/or action of these arylaminoalcohol drugs at locations of hemoglobin digestion and heme metabolism. In endemic regions, pressure from use of lumefantrine or mefloquine in ACTs may drive selection of PfK13 polymorphisms along with versions of PfMDR1 and PfCRT associated with lower susceptibility to these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean T Windle
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Kristin D Lane
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Nahla B Gadalla
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Anna Liu
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Jianbing Mu
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Ramoncito L Caleon
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Rifat S Rahman
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Juliana M Sá
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Thomas E Wellems
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, 20892, USA.
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