1
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Zhang S, Mi P, Luan J, Sun M, Zhao X, Feng X. Fluorene-9-bisphenol acts on the gut-brain axis by regulating oxytocin signaling to disturb social behaviors in zebrafish. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 255:119169. [PMID: 38763277 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.119169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 04/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Previous studies have identified the exposure to ubiquitous environmental endocrine disruptors may be a risk factor of neurological disorders. However, the effects of fluorene-9-bisphenol (BHPF) in environmental exposure concentrations associated with these disorders are poorly understood. In this study, classic light-dark and social behavior tests were performed on zebrafish larvae and adults exposed BHPF exposure to evaluate social behavioral disorders and the microbiota-gut-brain axis was assessed to reveal the potential mechanisms underlying the behavioral abnormalities observed. Our results demonstrated that zebrafish larvae exposed to an environmentally relevant concentration (0.1 nM) of BHPF for 7 days showed a diminished response to external environmental factors (light or dark). Zebrafish larvae exposed to BHPF for 7 days or adults exposed to BHPF for 30 days at 1 μM displayed significant behavioral inhibition and altered social behaviors, including social recognition, social preference, and social fear contagion, indicating autism-like behaviors were induced by the exposure. BHPF exposure reduced the distribution of Nissl bodies in midbrain neurons and significantly reduced 5-hydroxytryptamine signaling. Oxytocin (OXT) levels and expression of its receptor oxtra in the gut and brain were down-regulated by BHPF exposure. In addition, the expression levels of genes related to the excitation-inhibitory balance of synaptic transmission changed. Microbiomics revealed increased community diversity and altered abundance of some microflora, such as an elevation in Bacillota and Bacteroidota and a decline in Mycoplasmatota in zebrafish guts, which might contribute to the abnormal neural circuits and autism-like behaviors induced by BHPF. Finally, the rescue effect of exogenous OXT on social behavioral defects induced by BHPF exposure was verified in zebrafish, highlighting the crucial role of OXT signaling through gut-brain axis in the regulatory mechanisms of social behaviors affected by BHPF. This study contributes to understanding the effects of environmental BHPF exposure on neuropsychiatric disorders and attracts public attention to the health risks posed by chemicals in aquatic organisms. The potential mental disorders should be considered in the safety assessments of environmental pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhui Zhang
- College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials, Ministry of Education. Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Ping Mi
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China
| | - Jialu Luan
- College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials, Ministry of Education. Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Mingzhu Sun
- The Institute of Robotics and Automatic Information Systems, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- The Institute of Robotics and Automatic Information Systems, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China.
| | - Xizeng Feng
- College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials, Ministry of Education. Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China.
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2
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Stednitz SJ, Lesak A, Fecker AL, Painter P, Washbourne P, Mazzucato L, Scott EK. Probabilistic modeling reveals coordinated social interaction states and their multisensory bases. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.08.02.606104. [PMID: 39149367 PMCID: PMC11326195 DOI: 10.1101/2024.08.02.606104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2024]
Abstract
Social behavior across animal species ranges from simple pairwise interactions to thousands of individuals coordinating goal-directed movements. Regardless of the scale, these interactions are governed by the interplay between multimodal sensory information and the internal state of each animal. Here, we investigate how animals use multiple sensory modalities to guide social behavior in the highly social zebrafish (Danio rerio) and uncover the complex features of pairwise interactions early in development. To identify distinct behaviors and understand how they vary over time, we developed a new hidden Markov model with constrained linear-model emissions to automatically classify states of coordinated interaction, using the movements of one animal to predict those of another. We discovered that social behaviors alternate between two interaction states within a single experimental session, distinguished by unique movements and timescales. Long-range interactions, akin to shoaling, rely on vision, while mechanosensation underlies rapid synchronized movements and parallel swimming, precursors of schooling. Altogether, we observe spontaneous interactions in pairs of fish, develop novel hidden Markov modeling to reveal two fundamental interaction modes, and identify the sensory systems involved in each. Our modeling approach to pairwise social interactions has broad applicability to a wide variety of naturalistic behaviors and species and solves the challenge of detecting transient couplings between quasi-periodic time series.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew Lesak
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Adeline L Fecker
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | | | - Phil Washbourne
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Luca Mazzucato
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Ethan K Scott
- Department of Anatomy & Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
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3
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Harpaz R, Phillips M, Goel R, Fishman MC, Engert F. Experience-dependent modulation of collective behavior in larval zebrafish. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.08.02.606403. [PMID: 39149341 PMCID: PMC11326175 DOI: 10.1101/2024.08.02.606403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2024]
Abstract
Complex group behavior can emerge from simple inter-individual interactions. Commonly, these interactions are considered static and hardwired and little is known about how experience and learning affect collective group behavior. Young larvae use well described visuomotor transformations to guide interindividual interactions and collective group structure. Here, we use naturalistic and virtual-reality (VR) experiments to impose persistent changes in population density and measure their effects on future visually evoked turning behavior and the resulting changes in group structure. We find that neighbor distances decrease after exposure to higher population densities, and increase after the experience of lower densities. These adaptations develop slowly and gradually, over tens of minutes and remain stable over many hours. Mechanistically, we find that larvae estimate their current group density by tracking the frequency of neighbor-evoked looming events on the retina and couple the strength of their future interactions to that estimate. A time-varying state-space model that modulates agents' social interactions based on their previous visual-social experiences, accurately describes our behavioral observations and predicts novel aspects of behavior. These findings provide concrete evidence that inter-individual interactions are not static, but rather continuously evolve based on past experience and current environmental demands. The underlying neurobiological mechanisms of experience dependent modulation can now be explored in this small and transparent model organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Harpaz
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge 02138, USA
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge 02138, USA
| | - Morgan Phillips
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge 02138, USA
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge 02138, USA
| | - Ronan Goel
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge 02138, USA
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge 02138, USA
| | - Mark C Fishman
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Florian Engert
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge 02138, USA
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge 02138, USA
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4
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Josephine Stednitz S, Lesak A, Fecker AL, Painter P, Washbourne P, Mazzucato L, Scott EK. Probabilistic modeling reveals coordinated social interaction states and their multisensory bases. ARXIV 2024:arXiv:2408.01683v1. [PMID: 39130202 PMCID: PMC11312628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
Social behavior across animal species ranges from simple pairwise interactions to thousands of individuals coordinating goal-directed movements. Regardless of the scale, these interactions are governed by the interplay between multimodal sensory information and the internal state of each animal. Here, we investigate how animals use multiple sensory modalities to guide social behavior in the highly social zebrafish (Danio rerio) and uncover the complex features of pairwise interactions early in development. To identify distinct behaviors and understand how they vary over time, we developed a new hidden Markov model with constrained linear-model emissions to automatically classify states of coordinated interaction, using the movements of one animal to predict those of another. We discovered that social behaviors alternate between two interaction states within a single experimental session, distinguished by unique movements and timescales. Long-range interactions, akin to shoaling, rely on vision, while mechanosensation underlies rapid synchronized movements and parallel swimming, precursors of schooling. Altogether, we observe spontaneous interactions in pairs of fish, develop novel hidden Markov modeling to reveal two fundamental interaction modes, and identify the sensory systems involved in each. Our modeling approach to pairwise social interactions has broad applicability to a wide variety of naturalistic behaviors and species and solves the challenge of detecting transient couplings between quasi-periodic time series.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew Lesak
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Adeline L Fecker
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | | | - Phil Washbourne
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Luca Mazzucato
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Ethan K Scott
- Department of Anatomy & Physiology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
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5
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Dissinger A, Rimoldi S, Terova G, Kwasek K. Chronic social isolation affects feeding behavior of juvenile zebrafish (Danio rerio). PLoS One 2024; 19:e0307967. [PMID: 39058733 PMCID: PMC11280532 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0307967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Many organisms exhibit social behaviors and are part of some scheme of social structure. Zebrafish are highly social, shoaling fish and therefore, social isolation may have notable impacts on their physiology and behavior. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of social isolation on feed intake, monoaminergic system related gene expression, and intestinal health of juvenile zebrafish fed a high-inclusion soybean meal based diet. At 20 days post-fertilization zebrafish were randomly assigned to chronic isolation (1 fish per 1.5 L tank) or social housing (6 fish per 9 L tank) with 18 tanks per treatment group (n = 18). Dividers were placed between all tanks to prevent visual cues between fish. Zebrafish were fed a commercial fishmeal based diet until 35 days post-fertilization and then fed the experimental high-inclusion soybean meal based diet until 50 days post-fertilization. At the end of the experiment (51 days post-fertilization), the mean total length, weight, and weight gain were not significantly different between treatment groups. Feed intake and feed conversion ratio were significantly higher in chronic isolation fish than in social housing fish. Expression of monoaminergic and appetite-related genes were not significantly different between groups. The chronic isolation group showed higher expression of the inflammatory gene il-1b, however, average intestinal villi width was significantly smaller and average length-to-width ratio was significantly higher in chronic isolation fish, suggesting morphological signs of inflammation were not present at the time of sampling. These results indicate that chronic isolation positively affects feed intake of juvenile zebrafish and suggest that isolation may be useful in promoting feed intake of less-palatable diets such as those based on soybean meal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aubrey Dissinger
- Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University – Carbondale, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
| | - Simona Rimoldi
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Genciana Terova
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Karolina Kwasek
- Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University – Carbondale, Carbondale, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States of America
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6
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Lebel A, Zhang L, Gonçalves D. Chemical and Visual Cues as Modulators of the Stress Response to Social Isolation in the Marine Medaka, Oryzias melastigma. Zebrafish 2024; 21:15-27. [PMID: 38377346 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2023.0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The marine medaka is emerging as a potential behavioral model organism for ocean studies, namely on marine ecotoxicology. However, not much is known on the behavior of the species and behavioral assays lack standardization. This study assesses the marine medaka as a potential model for chemical communication. We investigated how short exposure to visual and chemical cues mediated the stress response to social isolation with the light/dark preference test (LDPT) and the open field test (OFT). After a 5-day isolation period, and 1 h before testing, isolated fish were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (1) placed in visual contact with conspecifics; (2) exposed to a flow of holding water from a group of conspecifics; (3) exposed to both visual and chemical cues from conspecifics; or (4) not exposed to any stimuli (controls). During the LDPT, the distance traveled and transitions between zones were more pronounced in animals exposed to the conspecific's chemical stimuli. The time spent in each area did not differ between the groups, but a clear preference for the bright area in all animals indicates robust phototaxis. During the OFT, animals exposed only to chemical cues initially traveled more than those exposed to visual or both stimuli, and displayed lower thigmotaxis. Taken together, results show that chemical cues play a significant role in exploratory behavior in this species and confirm the LDPT and OFT as suitable tests for investigating chemical communication in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Lebel
- Institute of Science and Environment, University of Saint Joseph, Macao, China
| | - Libin Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - David Gonçalves
- Institute of Science and Environment, University of Saint Joseph, Macao, China
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7
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Anneser L, Satou C, Hotz HR, Friedrich RW. Molecular organization of neuronal cell types and neuromodulatory systems in the zebrafish telencephalon. Curr Biol 2024; 34:298-312.e4. [PMID: 38157860 PMCID: PMC10808507 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
The function of neuronal networks is determined not only by synaptic connectivity but also by neuromodulatory systems that broadcast information via distributed connections and volume transmission. To understand the molecular constraints that organize neuromodulatory signaling in the telencephalon of adult zebrafish, we used transcriptomics and additional approaches to delineate cell types, to determine their phylogenetic conservation, and to map the expression of marker genes at high granularity. The combinatorial expression of GPCRs and cell-type markers indicates that all neuronal cell types are subject to modulation by multiple monoaminergic systems and distinct combinations of neuropeptides. Individual cell types were associated with multiple (typically >30) neuromodulatory signaling networks but expressed only a few diagnostic GPCRs at high levels, suggesting that different neuromodulatory systems act in combination, albeit with unequal weights. These results provide a detailed map of cell types and brain areas in the zebrafish telencephalon, identify core components of neuromodulatory networks, highlight the cell-type specificity of neuropeptides and GPCRs, and begin to decipher the logic of combinatorial neuromodulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Anneser
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Chie Satou
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Rudolf Hotz
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Rainer W Friedrich
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, 4058 Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, 4003 Basel, Switzerland.
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8
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Lin A, Álvarez-Salvado E, Milicic N, Pujara N, Ehrlich DE. Multisensory navigational strategies of hatchling fish for dispersal. Curr Biol 2023; 33:4917-4925.e4. [PMID: 37865093 PMCID: PMC10842570 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
Animals influence how they disperse in the environment by sensing local cues and adapting how they move. However, controlling dispersal can present a particular challenge early in life when animals tend to be more limited in their capacities to sense and move. To what extent and by what mechanisms can newly hatched fish control how they disperse? Here, we reveal hatchling sensorimotor mechanisms for controlling dispersal by combining swim tracking and precise sensory manipulations of a model species, zebrafish. In controlled laboratory experiments, if we physically constrained hatchlings or blocked sensations of motion through vision and the lateral line, hatchlings responded by elevating their buoyancy and passively moving with faster surface currents. Complementarily, in stagnant water, hatchlings covered more ground using hyperstable swimming, strongly orienting based on graviception. Using experimentally calibrated hydrodynamic simulations, we show that these hatchling behaviors nearly tripled diffusivity and made dispersal robust to local conditions, suggesting this multisensory strategy may provide important advantages for early life in a variable environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allia Lin
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Efrén Álvarez-Salvado
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Nikola Milicic
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Integrative Biology Graduate Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Nimish Pujara
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - David E Ehrlich
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; Integrative Biology Graduate Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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9
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Mu X, Liu Z, Zhao X, Chen L, Jia Q, Wang C, Li T, Guo Y, Qiu J, Qian Y. Bisphenol analogues induced social defects and neural impairment in zebrafish. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 899:166307. [PMID: 37586522 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
There is evidence in humans that endocrine disrupting chemicals exposure, such as bisphenol A (BPA), is tied to social behavior impacts when evaluated in early life stage. However, the potential social impact of BPA alternatives and its association with central nervous system (CNS) is poorly understood. Here, we performed behavioral test for zebrafish that are continuously exposed to environmental relevant concentrations (5 and 500 ng/L) of BPA, BPF, and BPAF since embryonic stage. Surprisingly, significant social behavior defects, including increased social distance and decreased contact time, were identified in zebrafish treated by 500 ng/L BPAF and BPA. These behavioral changes were accompanied by apparent histological injury, microglia activation, enhanced apoptosis and neuron loss in brain. The gut-brain transcriptional profile showed that genes involved in neuronal development pathways were up-regulated in all bisphenol analogs treatments, indicating a protective phenotype of CNS; however, these pathways were inhibited in gut. Besides, a variety of key regulators in the gut-brain regulation were identified based on protein interaction prediction, such as rac1-limk1, insrb1 and fosab. These findings implicated that the existence of bisphenol analogues in water would influence the social life of fish, and revealed a potential role of gut-brain transcriptional alteration in mediating this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiyan Mu
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zaiteng Liu
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhao
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Chen
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Jia
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengju Wang
- College of Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Tiejun Li
- Zhejiang Marine Fisheries Research Institute, China
| | - Yuanming Guo
- Zhejiang Marine Fisheries Research Institute, China
| | - Jing Qiu
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yongzhong Qian
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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10
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Yasmin N, Collier AD, Karatayev O, Abdulai AR, Yu B, Fam M, Khalizova N, Leibowitz SF. Subpopulations of hypocretin/orexin neurons differ in measures of their cell proliferation, dynorphin co-expression, projections, and response to embryonic ethanol exposure. Sci Rep 2023; 13:8448. [PMID: 37231149 PMCID: PMC10213024 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-35432-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies in animals demonstrate that embryonic exposure to ethanol (EtOH) at low-moderate doses stimulates neurogenesis and increases the number of hypothalamic neurons expressing the peptide, hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt). A recent study in zebrafish showed that this effect on the Hcrt neurons in the anterior hypothalamus (AH) is area specific, evident in the anterior (aAH) but not posterior (pAH) part of this region. To understand specific factors that may determine the differential sensitivity to EtOH of these Hcrt subpopulations, we performed additional measures in zebrafish of their cell proliferation, co-expression of the opioid dynorphin (Dyn), and neuronal projections. In association with the increase in Hcrt neurons in the aAH but not pAH, EtOH significantly increased only in the aAH the proliferation of Hcrt neurons and their number lacking Dyn co-expression. The projections of these subpopulations differed markedly in their directionality, with those from the pAH primarily descending to the locus coeruleus and those from the aAH ascending to the subpallium, and they were both stimulated by EtOH, which induced specifically the most anterior subpallium-projecting Hcrt neurons to become ectopically expressed beyond the aAH. These differences between the Hcrt subpopulations suggest they are functionally distinct in their regulation of behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nushrat Yasmin
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Adam D Collier
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Olga Karatayev
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Abdul R Abdulai
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Boyi Yu
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Milisia Fam
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Nailya Khalizova
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Sarah F Leibowitz
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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11
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Yasmin N, Collier AD, Abdulai AR, Karatayev O, Yu B, Fam M, Leibowitz SF. Role of Chemokine Cxcl12a in Mediating the Stimulatory Effects of Ethanol on Embryonic Development of Subpopulations of Hypocretin/Orexin Neurons and Their Projections. Cells 2023; 12:1399. [PMID: 37408233 PMCID: PMC10216682 DOI: 10.3390/cells12101399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies in zebrafish and rats show that embryonic ethanol exposure at low-moderate concentrations stimulates hypothalamic neurons expressing hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt) that promote alcohol consumption, effects possibly involving the chemokine Cxcl12 and its receptor Cxcr4. Our recent studies in zebrafish of Hcrt neurons in the anterior hypothalamus (AH) demonstrate that ethanol exposure has anatomically specific effects on Hcrt subpopulations, increasing their number in the anterior AH (aAH) but not posterior AH (pAH), and causes the most anterior aAH neurons to become ectopically expressed further anterior in the preoptic area (POA). Using tools of genetic overexpression and knockdown, our goal here was to determine whether Cxcl12a has an important function in mediating the specific effects of ethanol on these Hcrt subpopulations and their projections. The results demonstrate that the overexpression of Cxcl12a has stimulatory effects similar to ethanol on the number of aAH and ectopic POA Hcrt neurons and the long anterior projections from ectopic POA neurons and posterior projections from pAH neurons. They also demonstrate that knockdown of Cxcl12a blocks these effects of ethanol on the Hcrt subpopulations and projections, providing evidence supporting a direct role of this specific chemokine in mediating ethanol's stimulatory effects on embryonic development of the Hcrt system.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Sarah F. Leibowitz
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
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12
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Feugere L, Bates A, Emagbetere T, Chapman E, Malcolm LE, Bulmer K, Hardege J, Beltran-Alvarez P, Wollenberg Valero KC. Heat induces multiomic and phenotypic stress propagation in zebrafish embryos. PNAS NEXUS 2023; 2:pgad137. [PMID: 37228511 PMCID: PMC10205475 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Heat alters biology from molecular to ecological levels, but may also have unknown indirect effects. This includes the concept that animals exposed to abiotic stress can induce stress in naive receivers. Here, we provide a comprehensive picture of the molecular signatures of this process, by integrating multiomic and phenotypic data. In individual zebrafish embryos, repeated heat peaks elicited both a molecular response and a burst of accelerated growth followed by a growth slowdown in concert with reduced responses to novel stimuli. Metabolomes of the media of heat treated vs. untreated embryos revealed candidate stress metabolites including sulfur-containing compounds and lipids. These stress metabolites elicited transcriptomic changes in naive receivers related to immune response, extracellular signaling, glycosaminoglycan/keratan sulfate, and lipid metabolism. Consequently, non-heat-exposed receivers (exposed to stress metabolites only) experienced accelerated catch-up growth in concert with reduced swimming performance. The combination of heat and stress metabolites accelerated development the most, mediated by apelin signaling. Our results prove the concept of indirect heat-induced stress propagation toward naive receivers, inducing phenotypes comparable with those resulting from direct heat exposure, but utilizing distinct molecular pathways. Group-exposing a nonlaboratory zebrafish line, we independently confirm that the glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis-related gene chs1 and the mucus glycoprotein gene prg4a, functionally connected to the candidate stress metabolite classes sugars and phosphocholine, are differentially expressed in receivers. This hints at the production of Schreckstoff-like cues in receivers, leading to further stress propagation within groups, which may have ecological and animal welfare implications for aquatic populations in a changing climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauric Feugere
- Department of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Adam Bates
- Department of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Timothy Emagbetere
- Department of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Emma Chapman
- Department of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Linsey E Malcolm
- Biomedical Institute for Multimorbidities, Centre for Biomedicine, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Kathleen Bulmer
- Biomedical Institute for Multimorbidities, Centre for Biomedicine, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Jörg Hardege
- Department of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
| | - Pedro Beltran-Alvarez
- Biomedical Institute for Multimorbidities, Centre for Biomedicine, Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Kingston upon Hull HU6 7RX, UK
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13
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Pawlak P, Burren A, Seitz A, Pietsch C. Effects of different acute stressors on the regulation of appetite genes in the carp ( Cyprinus carpio L.) brain. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:230040. [PMID: 36816841 PMCID: PMC9929511 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Our understanding of the timing of stress responses and specific roles of different regulatory pathways that drive stress responses is incomplete. In particular, the regulation of appetite genes as a consequence of exposure to different stressors has not been studied in sufficient detail in fish. Therefore, a stress trial was conducted with koi carp, aiming at identifying typical effects of stress on regulation of appetite genes. The stressors tank manipulation, air exposure and feed rewarding were chosen. The responses to these stressors were evaluated 10, 30 and 60 min after the stressors were applied. Orexigenic and anorexigenic genes were investigated in four different brain regions (telencephalon, hypothalamus, optic tectum and rhombencephalon). The results show that, apart from the typical appetite regulation in the hypothalamus, the different brain regions also display pronounced responses of appetite genes to the different stressors. In addition, several genes in the serotonergic, dopaminergic and gaba-related pathways were investigated. These genes revealed that rearing in pairs of two and opening of the tank lid affected anorexigenic genes, such as cart and cck, which were not changed by air exposure or feed rewarding. Moreover, distress and eustress led to limited, but distinguishable gene expression pattern changes in the investigated brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Pawlak
- Agronomy, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Zollikofen, Bern CH-2052, Switzerland
- Division of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, CH-3032, Hinterkappelen, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alexander Burren
- Agronomy, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Zollikofen, Bern CH-2052, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Seitz
- Institute of Natural Resource Sciences, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Wädenswil, Zürich CH-8820, Switzerland
| | - Constanze Pietsch
- Agronomy, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Zollikofen, Bern CH-2052, Switzerland
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14
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Norland S, Gomes AS, Rønnestad I, Helvik JV, Eilertsen M. Light conditions during Atlantic salmon embryogenesis affect key neuropeptides in the melanocortin system during transition from endogenous to exogenous feeding. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 17:1162494. [PMID: 37153936 PMCID: PMC10160384 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1162494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
During the first feeding period, fish will adapt to exogenous feeding as their endogenous source of nutrients is depleted. This requires the development of a functional physiological system to control active search for food, appetite, and food intake. The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) melanocortin system, a key player in appetite control, includes neuronal circuits expressing neuropeptide y (npya), agouti-related peptide (agrp1), cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (cart), and proopiomelanocortin (pomca). Little is known about the ontogeny and function of the melanocortin system during early developmental stages. Atlantic salmon [0-730 day degrees (dd)] were reared under three different light conditions (DD, continuous darkness; LD, 14:10 Light: Dark; LL, continuous light) before the light was switched to LD and the fish fed twice a day. We examined the effects of different light conditions (DD LD , LD LD , and LL LD ) on salmon growth, yolk utilization, and periprandial responses of the neuropeptides npya1, npya2, agrp1, cart2a, cart2b, cart4, pomca1, and pomca2. Fish were collected 1 week (alevins, 830 dd, still containing yolk sac) and 3 weeks (fry, 991 dd, yolk sac fully consumed) into the first feeding period and sampled before (-1 h) and after (0.5, 1.5, 3, and 6 h) the first meal of the day. Atlantic salmon reared under DD LD , LD LD , and LL LD had similar standard lengths and myotome heights at the onset of first feeding. However, salmon kept under a constant light condition during endogenous feeding (DD LD and LL LD ) had less yolk at first feeding. At 830 dd none of the neuropeptides analyzed displayed a periprandial response. But 2 weeks later, and with no yolk remaining, significant periprandial changes were observed for npya1, pomca1, and pomca2, but only in the LD LD fish. This suggests that these key neuropeptides serve an important role in controlling feeding once Atlantic salmon need to rely entirely on active search and ingestion of exogenous food. Moreover, light conditions during early development did not affect the size of salmon at first feeding but did affect the mRNA levels of npya1, pomca1, and pomca2 in the brain indicating that mimicking natural light conditions (LD LD ) better stimulates appetite control.
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15
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Bruckner JJ, Stednitz SJ, Grice MZ, Zaidan D, Massaquoi MS, Larsch J, Tallafuss A, Guillemin K, Washbourne P, Eisen JS. The microbiota promotes social behavior by modulating microglial remodeling of forebrain neurons. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001838. [PMID: 36318534 PMCID: PMC9624426 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Host-associated microbiotas guide the trajectory of developmental programs, and altered microbiota composition is linked to neurodevelopmental conditions such as autism spectrum disorder. Recent work suggests that microbiotas modulate behavioral phenotypes associated with these disorders. We discovered that the zebrafish microbiota is required for normal social behavior and reveal a molecular pathway linking the microbiota, microglial remodeling of neural circuits, and social behavior in this experimentally tractable model vertebrate. Examining neuronal correlates of behavior, we found that the microbiota restrains neurite complexity and targeting of forebrain neurons required for normal social behavior and is necessary for localization of forebrain microglia, brain-resident phagocytes that remodel neuronal arbors. The microbiota also influences microglial molecular functions, including promoting expression of the complement signaling pathway and the synaptic remodeling factor c1q. Several distinct bacterial taxa are individually sufficient for normal microglial and neuronal phenotypes, suggesting that host neuroimmune development is sensitive to a feature common among many bacteria. Our results demonstrate that the microbiota influences zebrafish social behavior by stimulating microglial remodeling of forebrain circuits during early neurodevelopment and suggest pathways for new interventions in multiple neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J. Bruckner
- Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Sarah J. Stednitz
- Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Max Z. Grice
- Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Dana Zaidan
- Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Michelle S. Massaquoi
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Johannes Larsch
- Department Genes-Circuits-Behavior, Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Alexandra Tallafuss
- Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Karen Guillemin
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
- Humans and the Microbiome Program, CIFAR, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Philip Washbourne
- Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Judith S. Eisen
- Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Biology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, United States of America
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16
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Mennigen JA, Ramachandran D, Shaw K, Chaube R, Joy KP, Trudeau VL. Reproductive roles of the vasopressin/oxytocin neuropeptide family in teleost fishes. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:1005863. [PMID: 36313759 PMCID: PMC9606234 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1005863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The vertebrate nonapeptide families arginine vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (OXT) are considered to have evolved from a single vasopressin-like peptide present in invertebrates and termed arginine vasotocin in early vertebrate evolution. Unprecedented genome sequence availability has more recently allowed new insight into the evolution of nonapeptides and especially their receptor families in the context of whole genome duplications. In bony fish, nonapeptide homologues of AVP termed arginine vasotocin (Avp) and an OXT family peptide (Oxt) originally termed isotocin have been characterized. While reproductive roles of both nonapeptide families have historically been studied in several vertebrates, their roles in teleost reproduction remain much less understood. Taking advantage of novel genome resources and associated technological advances such as genetic modifications in fish models, we here critically review the current state of knowledge regarding the roles of nonapeptide systems in teleost reproduction. We further discuss sources of plasticity of the conserved nonapeptide systems in the context of diverse reproductive phenotypes observed in teleost fishes. Given the dual roles of preoptic area (POA) synthesized Avp and Oxt as neuromodulators and endocrine/paracrine factors, we focus on known roles of both peptides on reproductive behaviour and the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Emphasis is placed on the identification of a gonadal nonapeptide system that plays critical roles in both steroidogenesis and gamete maturation. We conclude by highlighting key research gaps including a call for translational studies linking new mechanistic understanding of nonapeptide regulated physiology in the context of aquaculture, conservation biology and ecotoxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan A. Mennigen
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Divya Ramachandran
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Katherine Shaw
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Radha Chaube
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Keerikkattil P. Joy
- Department of Biotechnology, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi, India
| | - Vance L. Trudeau
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada
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17
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Cheng RK, Tan JXM, Chua KX, Tan CJX, Wee CL. Osmotic Stress Uncovers Correlations and Dissociations Between Larval Zebrafish Anxiety Endophenotypes. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:900223. [PMID: 35813064 PMCID: PMC9269111 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.900223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Larval zebrafish are often used to model anxiety disorders. However, since it is impossible to recapitulate the full complexity and heterogeneity of anxiety in this model, examining component endophenotypes is key to dissecting the mechanisms underlying anxiety. While individual anxiety endophenotypes have been examined in zebrafish, an understanding of the relationships between them is still lacking. Here, we investigate the effects of osmotic stress on a range of anxiety endophenotypes such as thigmotaxis, dark avoidance, light-dark transitions, sleep, night startle, and locomotion. We also report a novel assay for stress-induced anorexia that extends and improves on previously reported food intake quantification methods. We show that acute <30 min osmotic stress decreases feeding but has no effect on dark avoidance. Further, acute osmotic stress dose-dependently increases thigmotaxis and freezing in a light/dark choice condition, but not uniform light environmental context. Prolonged >2 h osmotic stress has similar suppressive effects on feeding while also significantly increasing dark avoidance and sleep, with weaker effects on thigmotaxis and freezing. Notably, the correlations between anxiety endophenotypes were dependent on both salt and dark exposure, with increased dissociations at higher stressor intensities. Our results demonstrate context-dependent effects of osmotic stress on diverse anxiety endophenotypes, and highlight the importance of examining multiple endophenotypes in order to gain a more complete understanding of anxiety mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Caroline Lei Wee
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR, Singapore, Singapore
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18
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Tan JXM, Ang RJW, Wee CL. Larval Zebrafish as a Model for Mechanistic Discovery in Mental Health. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:900213. [PMID: 35813062 PMCID: PMC9263853 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.900213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal models are essential for the discovery of mechanisms and treatments for neuropsychiatric disorders. However, complex mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety are difficult to fully recapitulate in these models. Borrowing from the field of psychiatric genetics, we reiterate the framework of 'endophenotypes' - biological or behavioral markers with cellular, molecular or genetic underpinnings - to reduce complex disorders into measurable behaviors that can be compared across organisms. Zebrafish are popular disease models due to the conserved genetic, physiological and anatomical pathways between zebrafish and humans. Adult zebrafish, which display more sophisticated behaviors and cognition, have long been used to model psychiatric disorders. However, larvae (up to 1 month old) are more numerous and also optically transparent, and hence are particularly suited for high-throughput screening and brain-wide neural circuit imaging. A number of behavioral assays have been developed to quantify neuropsychiatric phenomena in larval zebrafish. Here, we will review these assays and the current knowledge regarding the underlying mechanisms of their behavioral readouts. We will also discuss the existing evidence linking larval zebrafish behavior to specific human behavioral traits and how the endophenotype framework can be applied. Importantly, many of the endophenotypes we review do not solely define a diseased state but could manifest as a spectrum across the general population. As such, we make the case for larval zebrafish as a promising model for extending our understanding of population mental health, and for identifying novel therapeutics and interventions with broad impact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Caroline Lei Wee
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
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19
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Harpaz R, Aspiras AC, Chambule S, Tseng S, Bind MA, Engert F, Fishman MC, Bahl A. Collective behavior emerges from genetically controlled simple behavioral motifs in zebrafish. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabi7460. [PMID: 34613782 PMCID: PMC8494438 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abi7460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
It is not understood how changes in the genetic makeup of individuals alter the behavior of groups of animals. Here, we find that, even at early larval stages, zebrafish regulate their proximity and alignment with each other. Two simple visual responses, one that measures relative visual field occupancy and one that accounts for global visual motion, suffice to account for the group behavior that emerges. Mutations in genes known to affect social behavior in humans perturb these simple reflexes in individual larval zebrafish and change their emergent collective behaviors in the predicted fashion. Model simulations show that changes in these two responses in individual mutant animals predict well the distinctive collective patterns that emerge in a group. Hence, group behaviors reflect in part genetically defined primitive sensorimotor “motifs,” which are evident even in young larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Harpaz
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Ariel C. Aspiras
- Harvard Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Sydney Chambule
- Harvard Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Sierra Tseng
- Harvard Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Marie-Abèle Bind
- Biostatistics Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Florian Engert
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Mark C. Fishman
- Harvard Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Armin Bahl
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, Konstanz 78464, Germany
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