1
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Jekhmane S, Derks MGN, Maity S, Slingerland CJ, Tehrani KHME, Medeiros-Silva J, Charitou V, Ammerlaan D, Fetz C, Consoli NA, Cochrane RVK, Matheson EJ, van der Weijde M, Elenbaas BOW, Lavore F, Cox R, Lorent JH, Baldus M, Künzler M, Lelli M, Cochrane SA, Martin NI, Roos WH, Breukink E, Weingarth M. Host defence peptide plectasin targets bacterial cell wall precursor lipid II by a calcium-sensitive supramolecular mechanism. Nat Microbiol 2024; 9:1778-1791. [PMID: 38783023 PMCID: PMC11222147 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-024-01696-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is a leading cause of mortality, calling for the development of new antibiotics. The fungal antibiotic plectasin is a eukaryotic host defence peptide that blocks bacterial cell wall synthesis. Here, using a combination of solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance, atomic force microscopy and activity assays, we show that plectasin uses a calcium-sensitive supramolecular killing mechanism. Efficient and selective binding of the target lipid II, a cell wall precursor with an irreplaceable pyrophosphate, is achieved by the oligomerization of plectasin into dense supra-structures that only form on bacterial membranes that comprise lipid II. Oligomerization and target binding of plectasin are interdependent and are enhanced by the coordination of calcium ions to plectasin's prominent anionic patch, causing allosteric changes that markedly improve the activity of the antibiotic. Structural knowledge of how host defence peptides impair cell wall synthesis will likely enable the development of superior drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shehrazade Jekhmane
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Maik G N Derks
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Department of Chemistry, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sourav Maity
- Moleculaire Biofysica, Zernike Instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Cornelis J Slingerland
- Biological Chemistry Group, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Kamaleddin H M E Tehrani
- Biological Chemistry Group, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - João Medeiros-Silva
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Vicky Charitou
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Danique Ammerlaan
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Céline Fetz
- Department of Biology, Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Naomi A Consoli
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM) and Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Risonanze Magnetiche MetalloProteine (CIRMMP), Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Rachel V K Cochrane
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - Eilidh J Matheson
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - Mick van der Weijde
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Barend O W Elenbaas
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Francesca Lavore
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud Cox
- Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Department of Chemistry, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joseph H Lorent
- Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Department of Chemistry, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marc Baldus
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Markus Künzler
- Department of Biology, Institute of Microbiology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Moreno Lelli
- Magnetic Resonance Center (CERM) and Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Risonanze Magnetiche MetalloProteine (CIRMMP), Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Stephen A Cochrane
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - Nathaniel I Martin
- Biological Chemistry Group, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter H Roos
- Moleculaire Biofysica, Zernike Instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Eefjan Breukink
- Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Department of Chemistry, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Markus Weingarth
- NMR Spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Park S, Kim J, Oh SS, Choi SQ. Arginine-Rich Cell-Penetrating Peptides Induce Lipid Rearrangements for Their Active Translocation across Laterally Heterogeneous Membranes. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024:e2404563. [PMID: 38932459 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202404563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have emerged as valuable tools for the intracellular delivery of bioactive molecules, but their membrane perturbation during cell penetration is not fully understood. Here, nona-arginine (R9)-mediated membrane reorganization that facilitates the translocation of peptides across laterally heterogeneous membranes is directly visualized. The electrostatic binding of cationic R9 to anionic phosphatidylserine (PS)-enriched domains on a freestanding lipid bilayer induces lateral lipid rearrangements; in particular, in real-time it is observed that R9 fluidizes PS-rich liquid-ordered (Lo) domains into liquid-disordered (Ld) domains, resulting in the membrane permeabilization. The experiments with giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) confirm the preferential translocation of R9 through Ld domains without pore formation, even when Lo domains are more negatively charged. Indeed, whenever R9 comes into contact with negatively charged Lo domains, it dissolves the Lo domains first, promoting translocation across phase-separated membranes. Collectively, the findings imply that arginine-rich CPPs modulate lateral membrane heterogeneity, including membrane fluidization, as one of the fundamental processes for their effective cell penetration across densely packed lipid bilayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujin Park
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinmin Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Soo Oh
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 37673, Republic of Korea
- Institute for Convergence Research and Education in Advanced Technology (I-CREATE), Yonsei University, Incheon, 21983, Republic of Korea
| | - Siyoung Q Choi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
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3
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Zhou Y, Ma X, Yu C, Tian Y, Liang Q, Xin M, Sun P, Liu F, Chao D, Jia X, Wang C, Lu G. A Wearable Self-Charging Electroceutical Device for Bacteria-Infected Wound Healing. ACS NANO 2024; 18:15681-15694. [PMID: 38848285 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c01818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
The prolonged wound-healing process caused by pathogen infection remains a major public health challenge. The developed electrical antibiotic administration typically requires metal electrodes wired to a continuous power supply, restricting their use beyond clinical environments. To obviate the necessity for antibiotics and an external power source, we have developed a wearable synergistic electroceutical device composed of an air self-charging Zn battery. This battery integrates sustained tissue regeneration and antibacterial modalities while maintaining more than half of the initial capacity after ten cycles of chemical charging. In vitro bacterial/cell coculture with the self-charging battery demonstrates inhibited bacterial activity and enhanced cell function by simulating the endogenous electric field and dynamically engineering the microenvironment with released chemicals. This electroceutical device provides accelerated healing of a bacteria-infected wound by stimulating angiogenesis and modulating inflammation, while effectively inhibiting bacterial growth at the wound site. Considering the simple structure and easy operation for long-term treatment, this self-charging electroceutical device offers great potential for personalized wound care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Xuenan Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Changchun Yu
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, School of Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry, and Vision Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325027, China
| | - Yaping Tian
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology of the First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Qin Liang
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Meiying Xin
- Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatric Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Peng Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
- International Center of Future Science, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Fangmeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
- International Center of Future Science, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Danming Chao
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Xiaoteng Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Caiyun Wang
- Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, AIIM Facility, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
| | - Geyu Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Optoelectronics, College of Electronic Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
- International Center of Future Science, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
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4
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Rzycki M, Drabik D. Multifaceted Activity of Fabimycin: Insights from Molecular Dynamics Studies on Bacterial Membrane Models. J Chem Inf Model 2024; 64:4204-4217. [PMID: 38733348 PMCID: PMC11134499 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.4c00228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Membranes─cells' essential scaffolds─are valid molecular targets for substances with an antimicrobial effect. While certain substances, such as octenidine, have been developed to target membranes for antimicrobial purposes, the recently reported molecule, fabimycin (F2B)─a novel agent targeting drug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria─has not received adequate attention regarding its activity on membranes in the literature. The following study aims to investigate the effects of F2B on different bacterial membrane models, including simple planar bilayers and more complex bilayer systems that mimic the Escherichia coli shell equipped with double inner and outer bilayers. Our results show that F2B exhibited more pronounced interactions with bacterial membrane systems compared to the control PC system. Furthermore, we observed significant changes in local membrane property homeostasis in both the inner and outer membrane models, specifically in the case of lateral diffusion, membrane thickness, and membrane resilience (compressibility, tilt). Finally, our results showed that the effect of F2B differed in a complex system and a single membrane system. Our study provides new insights into the multifaceted activity of F2B, demonstrating its potential to disrupt bacterial membrane homeostasis, indicating that its activity extends the currently known mechanism of FabI enzyme inhibition. This disruption, coupled with the ability of F2B to penetrate the outer membrane layers, sheds new light on the behavior of this antimicrobial molecule. This highlights the importance of the interaction with the membrane, crucial in combating bacterial infections, particularly those caused by drug-resistant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Rzycki
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw 50-370, Poland
| | - Dominik Drabik
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw 50-370, Poland
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5
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Su M, Su Y. Recent Advances in Amphipathic Peptidomimetics as Antimicrobial Agents to Combat Drug Resistance. Molecules 2024; 29:2492. [PMID: 38893366 PMCID: PMC11173824 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29112492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The development of antimicrobial drugs with novel structures and clear mechanisms of action that are active against drug-resistant bacteria has become an urgent need of safeguarding human health due to the rise of bacterial drug resistance. The discovery of AMPs and the development of amphipathic peptidomimetics have lay the foundation for novel antimicrobial agents to combat drug resistance due to their overall strong antimicrobial activities and unique membrane-active mechanisms. To break the limitation of AMPs, researchers have invested in great endeavors through various approaches in the past years. This review summarized the recent advances including the development of antibacterial small molecule peptidomimetics and peptide-mimic cationic oligomers/polymers, as well as mechanism-of-action studies. As this exciting interdisciplinary field is continuously expanding and growing, we hope this review will benefit researchers in the rational design of novel antimicrobial peptidomimetics in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ma Su
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, 199 Ren-Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yongxiang Su
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Jiaozuo University, Ren-Min Road, Jiaozuo 454000, China;
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6
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Lee TH, Charchar P, Separovic F, Reid GE, Yarovsky I, Aguilar MI. The intricate link between membrane lipid structure and composition and membrane structural properties in bacterial membranes. Chem Sci 2024; 15:3408-3427. [PMID: 38455013 PMCID: PMC10915831 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc04523d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
It is now evident that the cell manipulates lipid composition to regulate different processes such as membrane protein insertion, assembly and function. Moreover, changes in membrane structure and properties, lipid homeostasis during growth and differentiation with associated changes in cell size and shape, and responses to external stress have been related to drug resistance across mammalian species and a range of microorganisms. While it is well known that the biomembrane is a fluid self-assembled nanostructure, the link between the lipid components and the structural properties of the lipid bilayer are not well understood. This perspective aims to address this topic with a view to a more detailed understanding of the factors that regulate bilayer structure and flexibility. We describe a selection of recent studies that address the dynamic nature of bacterial lipid diversity and membrane properties in response to stress conditions. This emerging area has important implications for a broad range of cellular processes and may open new avenues of drug design for selective cell targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzong-Hsien Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
| | - Patrick Charchar
- School of Engineering, RMIT University Melbourne Victoria 3001 Australia
| | - Frances Separovic
- School of Chemistry, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Gavin E Reid
- School of Chemistry, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne VIC 3010 Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, University of Melbourne Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Irene Yarovsky
- School of Engineering, RMIT University Melbourne Victoria 3001 Australia
| | - Marie-Isabel Aguilar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University Clayton VIC 3800 Australia
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7
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Thakur GCN, Uday A, Cebecauer M, Roos WH, Cwiklik L, Hof M, Jurkiewicz P, Melcrová A. Charge of a transmembrane peptide alters its interaction with lipid membranes. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2024; 235:113765. [PMID: 38309153 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2024.113765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
Transmembrane (TM) proteins interact closely with the surrounding membrane lipids. Lipids in the vicinity of TM proteins were reported to have hindered mobility, which has been associated with lipids being caught up in the rough surface of the TM domains. These reports, however, neglect one important factor that largely influences the membrane behavior - electrostatics of the TM peptides that are usually positively charged at their cytosolic end. Here, we study on the example of a neutral and a positively charged WALP peptide, how the charge of a TM peptide influences the membrane. We investigate both its dynamics and mechanics by: (i) time dependent fluorescent shift in combination with classical and FRET generalized polarization to evaluate the mobility of lipids at short and long-range distance from the peptide, (ii) atomic force microscopy to observe the mechanical stability of the peptide-containing membranes, and (iii) molecular dynamics simulations to analyze the peptide-lipid interactions. We show that both TM peptides lower lipid mobility in their closest surroundings. The peptides cause lateral heterogeneity in lipid mobility, which in turn prevents free lipid rearrangement and lowers the membrane ability to seal ruptures after mechanical indentations. Introduction of a positive charge to the peptide largely enhances these effects, affecting the whole membrane. We thus highlight that unspecific peptide-lipid interactions, especially the electrostatics, should not be overlooked as they have a great impact on the mechanics and dynamics of the whole membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garima C N Thakur
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 182 23 Prague 8, Czech Republic; University of Chemical and Technology, Technická 5, Dejvice, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Arunima Uday
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 182 23 Prague 8, Czech Republic; University of Chemical and Technology, Technická 5, Dejvice, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Cebecauer
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 182 23 Prague 8, Czech Republic
| | - Wouter H Roos
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Lukasz Cwiklik
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 182 23 Prague 8, Czech Republic; Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 166 10 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Hof
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 182 23 Prague 8, Czech Republic
| | - Piotr Jurkiewicz
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 182 23 Prague 8, Czech Republic.
| | - Adéla Melcrová
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 182 23 Prague 8, Czech Republic; Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands.
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8
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Hansson A, Karlsen EA, Stensen W, Svendsen JSM, Berglin M, Lundgren A. Preventing E. coli Biofilm Formation with Antimicrobial Peptide-Functionalized Surface Coatings: Recognizing the Dependence on the Bacterial Binding Mode Using Live-Cell Microscopy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:6799-6812. [PMID: 38294883 PMCID: PMC10875647 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c16004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) can kill bacteria by destabilizing their membranes, yet translating these molecules' properties into a covalently attached antibacterial coating is challenging. Rational design efforts are obstructed by the fact that standard microbiology methods are ill-designed for the evaluation of coatings, disclosing few details about why grafted AMPs function or do not function. It is particularly difficult to distinguish the influence of the AMP's molecular structure from other factors controlling the total exposure, including which type of bonds are formed between bacteria and the coating and how persistent these contacts are. Here, we combine label-free live-cell microscopy, microfluidics, and automated image analysis to study the response of surface-bound Escherichia coli challenged by the same small AMP either in solution or grafted to the surface through click chemistry. Initially after binding, the grafted AMPs inhibited bacterial growth more efficiently than did AMPs in solution. Yet, after 1 h, E. coli on the coated surfaces increased their expression of type-1 fimbriae, leading to a change in their binding mode, which diminished the coating's impact. The wealth of information obtained from continuously monitoring the growth, shape, and movements of single bacterial cells allowed us to elucidate and quantify the different factors determining the antibacterial efficacy of the grafted AMPs. We expect this approach to aid the design of elaborate antibacterial material coatings working by specific and selective actions, not limited to contact-killing. This technology is needed to support health care and food production in the postantibiotic era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Hansson
- Department
of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University
of Gothenburg, Gothenburg 40530, Sweden
- Department
of Chemistry and Materials, RISE Research
Institutes of Sweden, Borås 50115, Sweden
| | - Eskil André Karlsen
- Amicoat
A/S, Sykehusvegen 23, Tromsø 9019, Norway
- Department
of Chemistry, UiT The Arctic University
of Norway, Tromsø 9037, Norway
| | - Wenche Stensen
- Department
of Chemistry, UiT The Arctic University
of Norway, Tromsø 9037, Norway
| | - John S. M. Svendsen
- Amicoat
A/S, Sykehusvegen 23, Tromsø 9019, Norway
- Department
of Chemistry, UiT The Arctic University
of Norway, Tromsø 9037, Norway
| | - Mattias Berglin
- Department
of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University
of Gothenburg, Gothenburg 40530, Sweden
- Department
of Chemistry and Materials, RISE Research
Institutes of Sweden, Borås 50115, Sweden
| | - Anders Lundgren
- Department
of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University
of Gothenburg, Gothenburg 40530, Sweden
- Centre
for Antibiotic Resistance Research (CARe), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg 41346, Sweden
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