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Darkes-Burkey C, Shepherd RF. Volumetric 3D Printing of Endoskeletal Soft Robots. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2402217. [PMID: 38872253 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202402217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Computed Axial Lithography (CAL) is an emerging technology for manufacturing complex parts, all at once, by circumventing the traditional layered approach using tomography. Overprinting, a unique additive manufacturing capability of CAL, allows for a 3D geometry to be formed around a prepositioned insert where the occlusion of light is compensated for by the other angular projections. This method opens the door for novel applications within additive manufacturing for multi-material systems such as endoskeletal robots. Herein, this work presents one such application with a simple Gelatin Methacrylate (GelMA)hydrogel osmotic actuator with an embedded endoskeletal system. GelMA is an ideal material for this application as it is swellable and has reversible thermal gelation, enabling suspension of the endoskeleton during printing. By tuning the material formulation, the actuator design, and post-processing, swelling-induced bending actuation of 60 degrees is achieved. To aid in the printing process, a simple computational method for determining the absolute dose absorbed by the resin allowing for print time prediction is also proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron Darkes-Burkey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, 126 Hollister Drive, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, 126 Hollister Drive, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, 124 Hoy Road, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
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Chansoria P, Rizzo R, Rütsche D, Liu H, Delrot P, Zenobi-Wong M. Light from Afield: Fast, High-Resolution, and Layer-Free Deep Vat 3D Printing. Chem Rev 2024; 124:8787-8822. [PMID: 38967405 PMCID: PMC11273351 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.4c00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Harnessing light for cross-linking of photoresponsive materials has revolutionized the field of 3D printing. A wide variety of techniques leveraging broad-spectrum light shaping have been introduced as a way to achieve fast and high-resolution printing, with applications ranging from simple prototypes to biomimetic engineered tissues for regenerative medicine. Conventional light-based printing techniques use cross-linking of material in a layer-by-layer fashion to produce complex parts. Only recently, new techniques have emerged which deploy multidirection, tomographic, light-sheet or filamented light-based image projections deep into the volume of resin-filled vat for photoinitiation and cross-linking. These Deep Vat printing (DVP) approaches alleviate the need for layer-wise printing and enable unprecedented fabrication speeds (within a few seconds) with high resolution (>10 μm). Here, we elucidate the physics and chemistry of these processes, their commonalities and differences, as well as their emerging applications in biomedical and non-biomedical fields. Importantly, we highlight their limitations, and future scope of research that will improve the scalability and applicability of these DVP techniques in a wide variety of engineering and regenerative medicine applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parth Chansoria
- Department
of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Riccardo Rizzo
- John
A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02134, United States
- Wyss
Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Dominic Rütsche
- Department
of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Basic
Science & Engineering (BASE) Initiative, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Hao Liu
- Department
of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Paul Delrot
- Readily3D
SA, EPFL Innovation Park, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Marcy Zenobi-Wong
- Department
of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zürich, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
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Lipkowitz G, Saccone MA, Panzer MA, Coates IA, Hsiao K, Ilyn D, Kronenfeld JM, Tumbleston JR, Shaqfeh ESG, DeSimone JM. Growing three-dimensional objects with light. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2303648121. [PMID: 38950359 PMCID: PMC11252790 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2303648121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Vat photopolymerization (VP) additive manufacturing enables fabrication of complex 3D objects by using light to selectively cure a liquid resin. Developed in the 1980s, this technique initially had few practical applications due to limitations in print speed and final part material properties. In the four decades since the inception of VP, the field has matured substantially due to simultaneous advances in light delivery, interface design, and materials chemistry. Today, VP materials are used in a variety of practical applications and are produced at industrial scale. In this perspective, we trace the developments that enabled this printing revolution by focusing on the enabling themes of light, interfaces, and materials. We focus on these fundamentals as they relate to continuous liquid interface production (CLIP), but provide context for the broader VP field. We identify the fundamental physics of the printing process and the key breakthroughs that have enabled faster and higher-resolution printing, as well as production of better materials. We show examples of how in situ print process monitoring methods such as optical coherence tomography can drastically improve our understanding of the print process. Finally, we highlight areas of recent development such as multimaterial printing and inorganic material printing that represent the next frontiers in VP methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Lipkowitz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Max A. Saccone
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | | | - Ian A. Coates
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Kaiwen Hsiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Daniel Ilyn
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | | | | | - Eric S. G. Shaqfeh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Joseph M. DeSimone
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA94305
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Hosseinzadeh E, Bosques-Palomo B, Carmona-Arriaga F, Fabiani MA, Aguirre-Soto A. Fabrication of Soft Transparent Patient-Specific Vascular Models with Stereolithographic 3D printing and Thiol-Based Photopolymerizable Coatings. Macromol Rapid Commun 2024; 45:e2300611. [PMID: 38158746 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202300611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 12/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
An ideal vascular phantom should be anatomically accurate, have mechanical properties as close as possible to the tissue, and be sufficiently transparent for ease of visualization. However, materials that enable the convergence of these characteristics have remained elusive. The fabrication of patient-specific vascular phantoms with high anatomical fidelity, optical transparency, and mechanical properties close to those of vascular tissue is reported. These final properties are achieved by 3D printing patient-specific vascular models with commercial elastomeric acrylic-based resins before coating them with thiol-based photopolymerizable resins. Ternary thiol-ene-acrylate chemistry is found optimal. A PETMP/allyl glycerol ether (AGE)/polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) coating with a 30/70% AGE/PEGDA ratio applied on a flexible resin yielded elastic modulus, UTS, and elongation of 3.41 MPa, 1.76 MPa, and 63.2%, respectively, in range with the human aortic wall. The PETMP/AGE/PEGDA coating doubled the optical transmission from 40% to 80%, approaching 88% of the benchmark silicone-based elastomer. Higher transparency correlates with a decrease in surface roughness from 2000 to 90 nm after coating. Coated 3D-printed anatomical replicas are showcased for pre-procedural planning and medical training with good radio-opacity and echogenicity. Thiol-click chemistry coatings, as a surface treatment for elastomeric stereolithographic 3D-printed objects, address inherent limitations of photopolymer-based additive manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elnaz Hosseinzadeh
- School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Monterrey, 64849, México
| | - Beatriz Bosques-Palomo
- School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Monterrey, 64849, México
| | | | - Mario Alejandro Fabiani
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Monterrey, 64710, México
| | - Alan Aguirre-Soto
- School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Nuevo León, Monterrey, 64849, México
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Stüwe L, Geiger M, Röllgen F, Heinze T, Reuter M, Wessling M, Hecht S, Linkhorst J. Continuous Volumetric 3D Printing: Xolography in Flow. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2306716. [PMID: 37565596 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202306716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing techniques continue to improve in resolution, geometrical freedom, and production rates, expanding their application range in research and industry. Most established techniques, however, are based on layer-by-layer polymerization processes, leading to an inherent trade-off between resolution and printing speed. Volumetric 3D printing enables the polymerization of freely defined volumes allowing the fabrication of complex geometries at drastically increased production rates and high resolutions, marking the next chapter in light-based additive manufacturing. This work advances the volumetric 3D printing technique xolography to a continuous process. Dual-color photopolymerization is performed in a continuously flowing resin, inside a tailored flow cell. Supported by simulations, the flow profile in the printing area is flattened, and resin velocities at the flow cell walls are increased to minimize unwanted polymerization via laser sheet-induced curing. Various objects are printed continuously and true to shape with smooth surfaces. Parallel object printing paves the way for up-scaling the continuous production, currently reaching production rates up to 1.75 mm3 s-1 for the presented flow cell. Xolography in flow provides a new opportunity for scaling up volumetric 3D printing with the potential to resolve the trade-off between high production rates and high resolution in light-based additive manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Stüwe
- Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 51, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Matthias Geiger
- Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 51, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Franz Röllgen
- Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 51, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thorben Heinze
- Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 51, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Matthias Wessling
- Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 51, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Stefan Hecht
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52074, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Street 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - John Linkhorst
- Chemical Process Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 51, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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