Overexpression of catalase in mitochondria mitigates changes in hippocampal cytokine expression following simulated microgravity and isolation

Oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and the blood-brain barrier biomarkers on the brain response to spaceflight

Prolonged spaceflight can induce physiologic and pathologic abnormalities in the central nervous system (CNS). Our knowledge of the adaptive and/or detrimental effects of spaceflight on the structure and function of the nervous system is limited. Substantial effort has been devoted to identifying and developing reliable indicators to characterize and predict CNS injury and dysfunction associated with prolonged exposure to major components of the space environment including microgravity, physiological/psychological stress, and radiation from galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar particle events (SPEs) outside of low earth orbit (LEO). The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a semi-permeable membrane that is essential to maintain homeostasis of the brain microenvironment. Oxidative stress or other environmental stressors may disrupt BBB integrity and increase permeability leading to immune cell infiltration and undesirable neuroinflammation. The focus of this review article is on BBB damage associated with spaceflight and space radiation in rodent and human studies. We will highlight potential biomarkers for this damage, including site-specific and circulating neuroinflammatory factors, BBB structural and brain parenchyma proteins, and neuroimaging tools for BBB damage evaluation. These knowledge will help to understand the risks associated with space travel and are also critical for novel countermeasure development to mitigate the space flight risk to astronaut performances.

Mitochondrial stress in the spaceflight environment

Space is a challenging environment that deregulates individual homeostasis. The main external hazards associated with spaceflight include ionizing space radiation, microgravity, isolation and confinement, distance from Earth, and hostile environment. Characterizing the biological responses to spaceflight environment is essential to validate the health risks, and to develop effective protection strategies. Mitochondria energetics is a key mechanism underpinning many physiological, ecological and evolutionary processes. Moreover, mitochondrial stress can be considered one of the fundamental features of space travel. So, we attempt to synthesize key information regarding the extensive effects of spaceflight on mitochondria. In summary, mitochondria are affected by all of the five main hazards of spaceflight at multiple levels, including their morphology, respiratory function, protein, and genetics, in various tissues and organ systems. We emphasize that investigating mitochondrial biology in spaceflight conditions should become the central focus of research on the impacts of spaceflight on human health, as this approach will help resolve numerous challenges of space health and combat several health disorders associated with mitochondrial dysfunction.

Transcranial photobiomodulation mitigates learning and memory impairments induced by hindlimb unloading in a mouse model of microgravity exposure by suppression of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation signaling pathways

Prolonged microgravity exposure causes cognitive impairment. Evidence shows that oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are involved in the causation. Here, we explore the effectiveness of transcranial near-infrared photobiomodulation (PBM) on cognitive deficits in a mouse model of simulated microgravity. 24 adult male C57BL/6 mice were assigned into three groups (8 in each); control, hindlimb unloading (HU), and HU + PBM groups. After surgery to fit the suspension fixing, the animals were housed either in HU cages or in their normal cage for 14 days. The mice in the HU + PBM group received PBM (810 nm laser, 10 Hz, 8 J/cm2) once per day for 14 days. Spatial learning and memory were assessed in the Lashley III maze and hippocampus tissue samples were collected to assess oxidative stress markers and protein expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), Sirtuin 1 (Sirt1), and Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). Behavioral testing showed that the PBM-treated animals had a shorter latency time to find the target and fewer errors than the HU group. PBM decreased hippocampal lipid peroxidation while increasing antioxidant defense systems (glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and total antioxidant capacity) compared to HU mice. PBM increased protein expression of Sirt1, Nrf2, and BDNF while decreasing NF-κB compared to HU mice. Our findings suggested that the protective effect of PBM against HU-induced cognitive impairment involved the activation of the Sirt1/Nrf2 signaling pathway, up-regulation of BDNF, and reduction of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in the hippocampus.

Mitochondria-Targeted Human Catalase in the Mouse Longevity MCAT Model Mitigates Head-Tilt Bedrest-Induced Neuro-Inflammation in the Hippocampus

Microgravity (modeled by head-tilt bedrest and hind-limb unloading), experienced during prolonged spaceflight, results in neurological consequences, central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction, and potentially impairment during the performance of critical tasks. Similar pathologies are observed in bedrest, sedentary lifestyle, and muscle disuse on Earth. In our previous study, we saw that head-tilt bedrest together with social isolation upregulated the milieu of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the hippocampus and plasma. These changes were mitigated in a MCAT mouse model overexpressing human catalase in the mitochondria, pointing out the importance of ROS signaling in this stress response. Here, we used a head-tilt model in socially housed mice to tease out the effects of head-tilt bedrest without isolation. In order to find the underlying molecular mechanisms that provoked the cytokine response, we measured CD68, an indicator of microglial activation in the hippocampus, as well as changes in normal in-cage behavior. We hypothesized that hindlimb unloading (HU) will elicit microglial hippocampal activations, which will be mitigated in the MCAT ROS-quenching mice model. Indeed, we saw an elevation of the activated microglia CD68 marker following HU in the hippocampus, and this pathology was mitigated in MCAT mice. Additionally, we identified cytokines in the hippocampus, which had significant positive correlations with CD68 and negative correlations with exploratory behaviors, indicating a link between neuroinflammation and behavioral consequences. Unveiling a correlation between molecular and behavioral changes could reveal a biomarker indicative of these responses and could also result in a potential target for the treatment and prevention of cognitive changes following long space missions and/or muscle disuse on Earth.

Quantitative proteomic analytic approaches to identify metabolic changes in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats exposed to space radiation

NASA’s planned mission to Mars will result in astronauts being exposed to ∼350 mSv/yr of Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR). A growing body of data from ground-based experiments indicates that exposure to space radiation doses (approximating those that astronauts will be exposed to on a mission to Mars) impairs a variety of cognitive processes, including cognitive flexibility tasks. Some studies report that 33% of individuals may experience severe cognitive impairment. Translating the results from ground-based rodent studies into tangible risk estimates for astronauts is an enormous challenge, but it would be germane for NASA to use the vast body of data from the rodent studies to start developing appropriate countermeasures, in the expectation that some level of space radiation (SR) -induced cognitive impairment could occur in astronauts. While some targeted studies have reported radiation-induced changes in the neurotransmission properties and/or increased neuroinflammation within space radiation exposed brains, there remains little information that can be used to start the development of a mechanism-based countermeasure strategy. In this study, we have employed a robust label-free mass spectrometry (MS) -based untargeted quantitative proteomic profiling approach to characterize the composition of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) proteome in rats that have been exposed to 15 cGy of 600 MeV/n28Si ions. A variety of analytical techniques were used to mine the generated expression data, which in such studies is typically hampered by low and variable sample size. We have identified several pathways and proteins whose expression alters as a result of space radiation exposure, including decreased mitochondrial function, and a further subset of proteins differs in rats that have a high level of cognitive performance after SR exposure in comparison with those that have low performance levels. While this study has provided further insight into how SR impacts upon neurophysiology, and what adaptive responses can be invoked to prevent the emergence of SR-induced cognitive impairment, the main objective of this paper is to outline strategies that can be used by others to analyze sub-optimal data sets and to identify new information.