1
|
Hosztafi S, Galambos AR, Köteles I, Karádi DÁ, Fürst S, Al-Khrasani M. Opioid-Based Haptens: Development of Immunotherapy. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7781. [PMID: 39063024 PMCID: PMC11277321 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25147781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Over the past decades, extensive preclinical research has been conducted to develop vaccinations to protect against substance use disorder caused by opioids, nicotine, cocaine, and designer drugs. Morphine or fentanyl derivatives are small molecules, and these compounds are not immunogenic, but when conjugated as haptens to a carrier protein will elicit the production of antibodies capable of reacting specifically with the unconjugated hapten or its parent compound. The position of the attachment in opioid haptens to the carrier protein will influence the specificity of the antiserum produced in immunized animals with the hapten-carrier conjugate. Immunoassays for the determination of opioid drugs are based on the ability of drugs to inhibit the reaction between drug-specific antibodies and the corresponding drug-carrier conjugate or the corresponding labelled hapten. Pharmacological studies of the hapten-carrier conjugates resulted in the development of vaccines for treating opioid use disorders (OUDs). Immunotherapy for opioid addiction includes the induction of anti-drug vaccines which are composed of a hapten, a carrier protein, and adjuvants. In this review we survey the design of opioid haptens, the development of the opioid radioimmunoassay, and the results of immunotherapy for OUDs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sándor Hosztafi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Semmelweis University, Hogyes Endre u. 9., H-1092 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Anna Rita Galambos
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvá-rad tér 4., H-1445 Budapest, Hungary; (A.R.G.); (D.Á.K.); (S.F.)
| | - István Köteles
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Semmelweis University, Hogyes Endre u. 9., H-1092 Budapest, Hungary;
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Dávid Á Karádi
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvá-rad tér 4., H-1445 Budapest, Hungary; (A.R.G.); (D.Á.K.); (S.F.)
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, Semmelweis University, Üllői út 78., H-1082 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Susanna Fürst
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvá-rad tér 4., H-1445 Budapest, Hungary; (A.R.G.); (D.Á.K.); (S.F.)
| | - Mahmoud Al-Khrasani
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Semmelweis University, Nagyvá-rad tér 4., H-1445 Budapest, Hungary; (A.R.G.); (D.Á.K.); (S.F.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Soni D, Borriello F, Scott DA, Feru F, DeLeon M, Brightman SE, Cheng WK, Melhem G, Smith JA, Ramirez JC, Barman S, Cameron M, Kelly A, Walker K, Nanishi E, van Haren SD, Phan T, Qi Y, Kinsey R, Raczy MM, Ozonoff A, Pettengill MA, Hubbell JA, Fox CB, Dowling DJ, Levy O. From hit to vial: Precision discovery and development of an imidazopyrimidine TLR7/8 agonist adjuvant formulation. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadg3747. [PMID: 38959314 PMCID: PMC11221515 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg3747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Vaccination can help prevent infection and can also be used to treat cancer, allergy, and potentially even drug overdose. Adjuvants enhance vaccine responses, but currently, the path to their advancement and development is incremental. We used a phenotypic small-molecule screen using THP-1 cells to identify nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)-activating molecules followed by counterscreening lead target libraries with a quantitative tumor necrosis factor immunoassay using primary human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Screening on primary cells identified an imidazopyrimidine, dubbed PVP-037. Moreover, while PVP-037 did not overtly activate THP-1 cells, it demonstrated broad innate immune activation, including NF-κB and cytokine induction from primary human leukocytes in vitro as well as enhancement of influenza and SARS-CoV-2 antigen-specific humoral responses in mice. Several de novo synthesis structural enhancements iteratively improved PVP-037's in vitro efficacy, potency, species-specific activity, and in vivo adjuvanticity. Overall, we identified imidazopyrimidine Toll-like receptor-7/8 adjuvants that act in synergy with oil-in-water emulsion to enhance immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dheeraj Soni
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Francesco Borriello
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David A. Scott
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Frederic Feru
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maria DeLeon
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Spencer E. Brightman
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Wing Ki Cheng
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gandolina Melhem
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Juan C. Ramirez
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Soumik Barman
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael Cameron
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USA
| | - Aisling Kelly
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kristina Walker
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Etsuro Nanishi
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Simon Daniel van Haren
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tony Phan
- Access to Advanced Health Institute (AAHI), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Yizhi Qi
- Access to Advanced Health Institute (AAHI), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Robert Kinsey
- Access to Advanced Health Institute (AAHI), Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Michal M. Raczy
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Al Ozonoff
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT & Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Matthew A. Pettengill
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jeffery A. Hubbell
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Christopher B. Fox
- Access to Advanced Health Institute (AAHI), Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, 3980 15th Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - David J. Dowling
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ofer Levy
- Precision Vaccines Program, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of MIT & Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Luba R, Comer SD. Opioid vaccine clinical testing: lessons learned. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2024; 37:264-269. [PMID: 38726813 DOI: 10.1097/yco.0000000000000945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Opioid use disorder (OUD) presents a serious public health concern, with dramatic increases in opioid-overdose mortality in recent years and a small percentage of those with OUD accessing or remaining engaged with available treatments. Efforts are currently underway to identify vaccines targeting opioids, which could provide a novel and complimentary approach. The current review provides an overview of existing literature, practical considerations for designing and conducting clinical trials with vaccines for opioids, and future directions. RECENT FINDINGS This review covers the following themes: clinical trial design and selection of endpoints, timepoint selection, practical considerations and lessons learned from the first (ongoing) trial of a vaccine targeting opioids, and future directions. SUMMARY Efforts to develop and test vaccines targeting OUD are based on a foundation of preclinical work and close collaboration between preclinical and clinical researchers. Efforts to learn from shortcomings of prior clinical trials of vaccines for other substances are essential in designing and testing effective vaccines for OUD. Design and implementation of clinical trials for a vaccine for OUD requires careful balance of participant safety and strategies for retention and efforts to gather viable data to inform future work.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Luba
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
- Division on Substance Use Disorders, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sandra D Comer
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center
- Division on Substance Use Disorders, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Abstract
Substance use disorders (SUD) present a worldwide challenge with few effective therapies except for the relative efficacy of opioid pharmacotherapies, despite limited treatment access. However, the proliferation of illicit fentanyl use initiated a dramatic and cascading epidemic of lethal overdoses. This rise in fentanyl overdoses regenerated an interest in vaccine immunotherapy, which, despite an optimistic start in animal models over the past 50 years, yielded disappointing results in human clinical trials of vaccines against nicotine, stimulants (cocaine and methamphetamine), and opioids. After a brief review of clinical and selected preclinical vaccine studies, the "lessons learned" from the previous vaccine clinical trials are summarized, and then the newest challenge of a vaccine against fentanyl and its analogs is explored. Animal studies have made significant advances in vaccine technology for SUD treatment over the past 50 years, and the resulting anti-fentanyl vaccines show remarkable promise for ending this epidemic of fentanyl deaths.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R Kosten
- Waggoner Professor of Psychiatry, Pharmacology, Neuroscience, Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Song D, Crouse B, Vigliaturo J, Wu MM, Heimisdottir D, Kassick AJ, Averick SE, Raleigh MD, Pravetoni M. Multivalent Vaccination Strategies Protect against Exposure to Polydrug Opioid and Stimulant Mixtures in Mice and Rats. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2024; 7:363-374. [PMID: 38357285 PMCID: PMC10863445 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.3c00228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Illicit drug mixtures containing opioids and stimulants have been responsible for the majority of fatal drug overdoses among occasional users, and those with either opioid use disorder (OUD) or substance use disorder (SUD). As a complementary strategy to current pharmacotherapies, active immunization with conjugate vaccines has been proposed as a viable intervention to treat OUD as well as other SUD for which there are either limited or no treatment options. Vaccination against opioids and stimulants could help address the limitations of current medications (e.g., patient access, compliance, misuse liability, and safety) by providing an additional tool to prevent drug misuse and/or overdoses. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and limitations of using vaccines to treat SUD and overdose and to inform us on how to deploy this strategy in the field. Previous reports have shown promise by combining two vaccines into bivalent vaccine formulations to concurrently target multiple drugs. Here, multiple individual candidate monovalent vaccines were incrementally combined in multivalent vaccine formulations to simultaneously target fentanyl, carfentanil, oxycodone, heroin, methamphetamine, and their analogs or metabolites. Bi-, tri-, and quadrivalent vaccine formulations induced the formation of independent serum antibody responses against their respective opioid targets and selectively attenuated the distribution of each individual drug to the brain in mice and rats. Results indicate that a single injection of an admixed multivalent vaccine formulation may be more effective than coinjecting multiple monovalent vaccines at multiple sites. Finally, adding a methamphetamine conjugate vaccine to an quadrivalent opioid vaccine in a pentavalent formulation did not interfere with the production of effective antiopioid IgG antibodies. Multivalent vaccines could provide multifaceted, yet selective, protection against polydrug use and exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daihyun Song
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Bethany Crouse
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- School
of Veterinary Population Medicine, University
of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jennifer Vigliaturo
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Mariah M. Wu
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- School
of Veterinary Population Medicine, University
of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Dagny Heimisdottir
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Andrew J. Kassick
- Neuroscience
Disruptive Research Lab, Allegheny Health
Network Research Institute, Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
| | - Saadyah E. Averick
- Neuroscience
Disruptive Research Lab, Allegheny Health
Network Research Institute, Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
- Neuroscience
Institute, Allegheny Health Network, Allegheny
General Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212, United States
| | - Michael D. Raleigh
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Marco Pravetoni
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- Department
of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University
of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
- University
of Washington Center for Medication Development for Substance Use
Disorders; Garvey Institute for Brain Solutions, Seattle,Washington 98195, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Román-Cruz VC, Miller SM, Schoener RA, Lukasiewicz C, Schmidt AK, DeBuysscher BL, Burkhart D, Secor PR, Evans JT. Adjuvanted Vaccine Induces Functional Antibodies against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Filamentous Bacteriophages. Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:115. [PMID: 38400099 PMCID: PMC10892371 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12020115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa), a WHO priority 1 pathogen, resulted in approximately 559,000 deaths globally in 2019. Pa has a multitude of host-immune evasion strategies that enhance Pa virulence. Most clinical isolates of Pa are infected by a phage called Pf that has the ability to misdirect the host-immune response and provide structural integrity to biofilms. Previous studies demonstrate that vaccination against the coat protein (CoaB) of Pf4 virions can assist in the clearance of Pa from the dorsal wound model in mice. Here, a consensus peptide was derived from CoaB and conjugated to cross-reacting material 197 (CRM197). This conjugate was adjuvanted with a novel synthetic Toll-like receptor agonist (TLR) 4 agonist, INI-2002, and used to vaccinate mice. Mice vaccinated with CoaB-CRM conjugate and INI-2002 developed high anti-CoaB peptide-specific IgG antibody titers. Direct binding of the peptide-specific antibodies to whole-phage virus particles was demonstrated by ELISA. Furthermore, a functional assay demonstrated that antibodies generated from vaccinated mice disrupted the replicative cycle of Pf phages. The use of an adjuvanted phage vaccine targeting Pa is an innovative vaccine strategy with the potential to become a new tool targeting multi-drug-resistant Pa infections in high-risk populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valery C. Román-Cruz
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (V.C.R.-C.); (A.K.S.); (P.R.S.)
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (C.L.); (B.L.D.); (D.B.)
| | | | | | - Chase Lukasiewicz
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (C.L.); (B.L.D.); (D.B.)
- Department of Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Amelia K. Schmidt
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (V.C.R.-C.); (A.K.S.); (P.R.S.)
| | - Blair L. DeBuysscher
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (C.L.); (B.L.D.); (D.B.)
- Department of Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - David Burkhart
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (C.L.); (B.L.D.); (D.B.)
- Inimmune Corporation, Missoula, MT 59802, USA; (S.M.M.); (R.A.S.)
- Department of Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Patrick R. Secor
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (V.C.R.-C.); (A.K.S.); (P.R.S.)
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (C.L.); (B.L.D.); (D.B.)
| | - Jay T. Evans
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (V.C.R.-C.); (A.K.S.); (P.R.S.)
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (C.L.); (B.L.D.); (D.B.)
- Inimmune Corporation, Missoula, MT 59802, USA; (S.M.M.); (R.A.S.)
- Department of Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lu T, Li X, Zheng W, Kuang C, Wu B, Liu X, Xue Y, Shi J, Lu L, Han Y. Vaccines to Treat Substance Use Disorders: Current Status and Future Directions. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:84. [PMID: 38258095 PMCID: PMC10820210 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16010084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Addiction, particularly in relation to psychostimulants and opioids, persists as a global health crisis with profound social and economic ramifications. Traditional interventions, including medications and behavioral therapies, often encounter limited success due to the chronic and relapsing nature of addictive disorders. Consequently, there is significant interest in the development of innovative therapeutics to counteract the effects of abused substances. In recent years, vaccines have emerged as a novel and promising strategy to tackle addiction. Anti-drug vaccines are designed to stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that bind to addictive compounds, such as nicotine, cocaine, morphine, methamphetamine, and heroin. These antibodies effectively neutralize the target molecules, preventing them from reaching the brain and eliciting their rewarding effects. By obstructing the rewarding sensations associated with substance use, vaccines aim to reduce cravings and the motivation to engage in drug use. Although anti-drug vaccines hold significant potential, challenges remain in their development and implementation. The reversibility of vaccination and the potential for combining vaccines with other addiction treatments offer promise for improving addiction outcomes. This review provides an overview of anti-drug vaccines, their mechanisms of action, and their potential impact on treatment for substance use disorders. Furthermore, this review summarizes recent advancements in vaccine development for each specific drug, offering insights for the development of more effective and personalized treatments capable of addressing the distinct challenges posed by various abused substances.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tangsheng Lu
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence Research, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (T.L.); (X.L.); (Y.X.); (J.S.)
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xue Li
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence Research, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (T.L.); (X.L.); (Y.X.); (J.S.)
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Wei Zheng
- Peking-Tsinghua Centre for Life Sciences and PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
| | - Chenyan Kuang
- College of Forensic Medicine, Hebei Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Forensic Medical Molecular Identification, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China;
| | - Bingyi Wu
- Henan Key Laboratory of Neurorestoratology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang 453100, China;
| | - Xiaoxing Liu
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing 100191, China;
| | - Yanxue Xue
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence Research, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (T.L.); (X.L.); (Y.X.); (J.S.)
| | - Jie Shi
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence Research, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (T.L.); (X.L.); (Y.X.); (J.S.)
| | - Lin Lu
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence Research, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (T.L.); (X.L.); (Y.X.); (J.S.)
- Peking-Tsinghua Centre for Life Sciences and PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing 100191, China;
| | - Ying Han
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence Research, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; (T.L.); (X.L.); (Y.X.); (J.S.)
| |
Collapse
|