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Park BS, Jeon H, Kim Y, Kwon H, Choi GE, Chi SG, Park HM, Lee H, Kim T. Polyamine and EIF5A hypusination downstream of c-Myc confers targeted therapy resistance in BRAF mutant melanoma. Mol Cancer 2024; 23:136. [PMID: 38965534 PMCID: PMC11223307 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-024-02031-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND BRAF inhibitors are widely employed in the treatment of melanoma with the BRAF V600E mutation. However, the development of resistance compromises their therapeutic efficacy. Diverse genomic and transcriptomic alterations are found in BRAF inhibitor resistant melanoma, posing a pressing need for convergent, druggable target that reverse therapy resistant tumor with different resistance mechanisms. METHODS CRISPR-Cas9 screens were performed to identify novel target gene whose inhibition selectively targets A375VR, a BRAF V600E mutant cell line with acquired resistance to vemurafenib. Various in vitro and in vivo assays, including cell competition assay, water soluble tetrazolium (WST) assay, live-dead assay and xenograft assay were performed to confirm synergistic cell death. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analyses quantified polyamine biosynthesis and changes in proteome in vemurafenib resistant melanoma. EIF5A hypusination dependent protein translation and subsequent changes in mitochondrial biogenesis and activity were assayed by O-propargyl-puromycin labeling assay, mitotracker, mitoSOX labeling and seahorse assay. Bioinformatics analyses were used to identify the association of polyamine biosynthesis with BRAF inhibitor resistance and poor prognosis in melanoma patient cohorts. RESULTS We elucidate the role of polyamine biosynthesis and its regulatory mechanisms in promoting BRAF inhibitor resistance. Leveraging CRISPR-Cas9 screens, we identify AMD1 (S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase 1), a critical enzyme for polyamine biosynthesis, as a druggable target whose inhibition reduces vemurafenib resistance. Metabolomic and proteomic analyses reveal that polyamine biosynthesis is upregulated in vemurafenib-resistant cancer, resulting in enhanced EIF5A hypusination, translation of mitochondrial proteins and oxidative phosphorylation. We also identify that sustained c-Myc levels in vemurafenib-resistant cancer are responsible for elevated polyamine biosynthesis. Inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis or c-Myc reversed vemurafenib resistance both in vitro cell line models and in vivo in a xenograft model. Polyamine biosynthesis signature is associated with poor prognosis and shorter progression free survival after BRAF/MAPK inhibitor treatment in melanoma cohorts, highlighting the clinical relevance of our findings. CONCLUSIONS Our findings delineate the molecular mechanisms involving polyamine-EIF5A hypusination-mitochondrial respiration pathway conferring BRAF inhibitor resistance in melanoma. These targets will serve as effective therapeutic targets that can maximize the therapeutic efficacy of existing BRAF inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byung-Sun Park
- Medicinal Materials Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Hwarangro-14-Gil, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, 145 AnamRo, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Heeju Jeon
- Medicinal Materials Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Hwarangro-14-Gil, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, 145 AnamRo, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeonseo Kim
- Center for Advanced Biomolecular Recognition, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Hwarangro- 14-Gil, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Haejin Kwon
- Advanced Analysis and Data Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Hwarangro-14-Gil, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Ga-Eun Choi
- Medicinal Materials Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Hwarangro-14-Gil, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Gil Chi
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, 145 AnamRo, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Mee Park
- Advanced Analysis and Data Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Hwarangro-14-Gil, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunbeom Lee
- Center for Advanced Biomolecular Recognition, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Hwarangro- 14-Gil, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Tackhoon Kim
- Medicinal Materials Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, 5 Hwarangro-14-Gil, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Life Sciences, Korea University, 145 AnamRo, SeongbukGu, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea.
- Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, Korea University of Science and Technology, 217 GajeongRo YuseongGu, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea.
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Arthur R, Jamwal S, Kumar P. A review on polyamines as promising next-generation neuroprotective and anti-aging therapy. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 978:176804. [PMID: 38950837 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders are diseases characterized by progressive degeneration of neurons and associated structures and are a major global issue growing more widespread as the global population's average age increases. Despite several investigations on their etiology, the specific cause of these disorders remains unknown. However, there are few symptomatic therapies to treat these disorders. Polyamines (PAs) (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) are being studied for their role in neuroprotection, aging and cognitive impairment. They are ubiquitous polycations which have relatively higher concentrations in the brain and possess pleiotropic biochemical activities, including regulation of gene expression, ion channels, mitochondria Ca2+ transport, autophagy induction, programmed cell death, and many more. Their cellular content is tightly regulated, and substantial evidence indicates that their altered levels and metabolism are strongly implicated in aging, stress, cognitive dysfunction, and neurodegenerative disorders. In addition, dietary polyamine supplementation has been reported to induce anti-aging effects, anti-oxidant effects, and improve locomotor abnormalities, and cognitive dysfunction. Thus, restoring the polyamine level is considered a promising pharmacological strategy to counteract neurodegeneration. This review highlights PAs' physiological role and the molecular mechanism underpinning their proposed neuroprotective effect in aging and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richmond Arthur
- Department of Pharmacology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India
| | - Sumit Jamwal
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Puneet Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India.
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3
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Wu B, Liu S. Structural Insights into the Mechanisms Underlying Polyaminopathies. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6340. [PMID: 38928047 PMCID: PMC11203672 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Polyamines are ubiquitous in almost all biological entities and involved in various crucial physiological processes. They are also closely associated with the onset and progression of many diseases. Polyaminopathies are a group of rare genetic disorders caused by alterations in the function of proteins within the polyamine metabolism network. Although the identified polyaminopathies are all rare diseases at present, they are genetically heritable, rendering high risks not only to the carriers but also to their descendants. Meanwhile, more polyaminopathic patients might be discovered with the increasing accessibility of gene sequencing. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the structural variations of mutated proteins in current polyaminopathies, in addition to their causative genes, types of mutations, clinical symptoms, and therapeutic approaches. We focus on analyzing how alterations in protein structure lead to protein dysfunction, thereby facilitating the onset of diseases. We hope this review will offer valuable insights and references for the future clinical diagnosis and precision treatment of polyaminopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Wu
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), Wuhan 430068, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, National “111” Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China
| | - Sen Liu
- Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation (Ministry of Education & Hubei Province), Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), Wuhan 430068, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, National “111” Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China
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4
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Kudryashova TV, Jiang L, Goncharova EA. What Is All of the Hype About? Hypusine Signaling as a Driver of Pulmonary Hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2024; 209:1298-1300. [PMID: 38412504 PMCID: PMC11146570 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202401-0195ed] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana V Kudryashova
- Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lifeng Jiang
- Department of Internal Medicine University of California Davis Davis, California
| | - Elena A Goncharova
- Department of Internal Medicine University of California Davis Davis, California
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5
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Liu Z, Chen B, Zou Z, Li D, Zhu J, Yu J, Xiao W, Yang H. Multiple trait comparison and global intestine transcriptional provide new insights into bases of heterosis in hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus × Oreochromis aureus). COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART D, GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2024; 50:101236. [PMID: 38688047 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2024.101236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Heterosis has been utilized in aquaculture for many years, yet its molecular basis remains elusive. Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of heterosis was conducted by comparing growth, digestion and biochemistry indices, as well as the intestinal gene expression profiles of Nile tilapia, blue tilapia and their hybrids. The results revealed that hybrid tilapia demonstrated an enhanced growth traits and elevated digestive enzyme activity compared to Nile and blue tilapia. Additionally, the hybrid tilapia displayed superior antioxidants and non-specific immune levels, with increased levels of catalase (CAT), alkaline phosphatase (AKP), acid phosphatase (ACP), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), total antioxidant capacity (TAOC), lysozyme, and immunoglobulin M (IgM) relative to Nile and blue tilapia. Moreover, 3392, 2470 and 1261 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in the intestinal tissues when comparing Nile tilapia to blue tilapia, hybrid tilapia to blue tilapia, and hybrid tilapia to Nile tilapia. Upon classifying the differentially expressed genes (DEGs), non-additively expressed DEGs accounted for 68.1 % of the total DEGs, with dominant and over-dominant expressed DEGs comprising 63.7 % and 4.4 % in the intestines, respectively. These non-additively expressed DEGs were primarily associated with metabolic, digestive, growth, and developmental pathways. This enrichment enhances our comprehension of the molecular underpinnings of growth heterosis in aquatic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihui Liu
- Wuxi Fisheries College, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wuxi 214128, China
| | - Binglin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fisheries and Germplasm Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Wuxi 214081, China.
| | - Zhiying Zou
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fisheries and Germplasm Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Wuxi 214081, China.
| | - Dayu Li
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fisheries and Germplasm Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Wuxi 214081, China.
| | - Jinglin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fisheries and Germplasm Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Wuxi 214081, China.
| | - Jie Yu
- Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fisheries and Germplasm Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Wuxi 214081, China.
| | - Wei Xiao
- Wuxi Fisheries College, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wuxi 214128, China; Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fisheries and Germplasm Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Wuxi 214081, China.
| | - Hong Yang
- Wuxi Fisheries College, Nanjing Agricultural University, Wuxi 214128, China; Key Laboratory of Freshwater Fisheries and Germplasm Resources Utilization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Freshwater Fisheries Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Wuxi 214081, China.
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6
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Zhang Y, Ren Y, Li X, Li M, Fu M, Zhou W, Yu Y, Xiong Y. A review on decoding the roles of YAP/TAZ signaling pathway in cardiovascular diseases: Bridging molecular mechanisms to therapeutic insights. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 271:132473. [PMID: 38795886 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2024] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/28/2024]
Abstract
Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) serve as transcriptional co-activators that dynamically shuttle between the cytoplasm and nucleus, resulting in either the suppression or enhancement of their downstream gene expression. Recent emerging evidence demonstrates that YAP/TAZ is strongly implicated in the pathophysiological processes that contribute to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). In the cardiovascular system, YAP/TAZ is involved in the orchestration of a range of biological processes such as oxidative stress, inflammation, proliferation, and autophagy. Furthermore, YAP/TAZ has been revealed to be closely associated with the initiation and development of various cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, myocardial fibrosis, cardiac hypertrophy, and cardiomyopathy. In this review, we delve into recent studies surrounding YAP and TAZ, along with delineating their roles in contributing to the pathogenesis of CVDs with a link to various physiological processes in the cardiovascular system. Additionally, we highlight the current potential drugs targeting YAP/TAZ for CVDs therapy and discuss their challenges for translational application. Overall, this review may offer novel insights for understanding and treating cardiovascular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Yuanyuan Ren
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Xiaofang Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710018, PR China
| | - Man Li
- Department of Endocrinology, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710018, PR China
| | - Mingdi Fu
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Wenjing Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, Shaanxi, PR China
| | - Yi Yu
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, Shaanxi, PR China.
| | - Yuyan Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, Shaanxi, PR China; Xi'an Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, 710018 Xi'an, Shaanxi, PR China.
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7
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Umeyama T, Matsuda T, Nakashima K. Lineage Reprogramming: Genetic, Chemical, and Physical Cues for Cell Fate Conversion with a Focus on Neuronal Direct Reprogramming and Pluripotency Reprogramming. Cells 2024; 13:707. [PMID: 38667322 PMCID: PMC11049106 DOI: 10.3390/cells13080707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Although lineage reprogramming from one cell type to another is becoming a breakthrough technology for cell-based therapy, several limitations remain to be overcome, including the low conversion efficiency and subtype specificity. To address these, many studies have been conducted using genetics, chemistry, physics, and cell biology to control transcriptional networks, signaling cascades, and epigenetic modifications during reprogramming. Here, we summarize recent advances in cellular reprogramming and discuss future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taichi Umeyama
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Taito Matsuda
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
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8
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Li M, Dai M, Cheng B, Li S, Guo E, Fu J, Ma T, Yu B. Strategies that regulate LSD1 for novel therapeutics. Acta Pharm Sin B 2024; 14:1494-1507. [PMID: 38572094 PMCID: PMC10985039 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2024.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Histone methylation plays crucial roles in regulating chromatin structure and gene transcription in epigenetic modifications. Lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1), the first identified histone demethylase, is universally overexpressed in various diseases. LSD1 dysregulation is closely associated with cancer, viral infections, and neurodegenerative diseases, etc., making it a promising therapeutic target. Several LSD1 inhibitors and two small-molecule degraders (UM171 and BEA-17) have entered the clinical stage. LSD1 can remove methyl groups from histone 3 at lysine 4 or lysine 9 (H3K4 or H3K9), resulting in either transcription repression or activation. While the roles of LSD1 in transcriptional regulation are well-established, studies have revealed that LSD1 can also be dynamically regulated by other factors. For example, the expression or activity of LSD1 can be regulated by many proteins that form transcriptional corepressor complexes with LSD1. Moreover, some post-transcriptional modifications and cellular metabolites can also regulate LSD1 expression or its demethylase activity. Therefore, in this review, we will systematically summarize how proteins involved in the transcriptional corepressor complex, various post-translational modifications, and metabolites act as regulatory factors for LSD1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Mengge Dai
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Bing Cheng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Shaotong Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Enhui Guo
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Junwei Fu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Ting Ma
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
- Pingyuan Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Bin Yu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Preparation Technologies, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
- College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
- Tianjian Laboratory of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450000, China
- Pingyuan Laboratory, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
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Zeng J, Zhang Y, Fang Y, Lian J, Zhang H, Zhang S, Lin B, Ye Z, Li C, Qiu X, Liang Y. Natural Product Quercetin-3-methyl ether Promotes Colorectal Cancer Cell Apoptosis by Downregulating Intracellular Polyamine Signaling. Int J Med Sci 2024; 21:904-913. [PMID: 38617002 PMCID: PMC11008483 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.93903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Dysregulation of cellular metabolism is a key marker of cancer, and it is suggested that metabolism should be considered as a targeted weakness of colorectal cancer. Increased polyamine metabolism is a common metabolic change in tumors. Thus, targeting polyamine metabolism for anticancer therapy, particularly polyamine blockade therapy, has gradually become a hot topic. Quercetin-3-methyl ether is a natural compound existed in various plants with diverse biological activities like antioxidant and antiaging. Here, we reported that Quercetin-3-methyl ether inhibits colorectal cancer cell viability, and promotes apoptosis in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner. Intriguingly, the polyamine levels, including spermidine and spermine, in colorectal cancer cells were reduced upon treatment of Quercetin-3-methyl ether. This is likely resulted from the downregulation of SMOX, a key enzyme in polyamine metabolism that catalyzes the oxidation of spermine to spermidine. These findings suggest Quercetin-3-methyl ether decreases cellular polyamine level by suppressing SMOX expression, thereby inducing colorectal cancer cell apoptosis. Our results also reveal a correlation between the anti-tumor activity of Quercetin-3-methyl ether and the polyamine metabolism modulation, which may provide new insights into a better understanding of the pharmacological activity of Quercetin-3-methyl ether and how it reprograms cellular polyamine metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jincheng Zeng
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Yuancheng Zhang
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
- Dongguan Proof-of-Concept Centers for Medical Use, Guangdong Xinghai Institute of Cell, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Yuming Fang
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
- Department of Pathology, Binhaiwan Central Hospital of Dongguan, Dongguan 523000, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Yuedong Hospital, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, China
| | - Jiachun Lian
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Hailiang Zhang
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
- Department of Pathology, Binhaiwan Central Hospital of Dongguan, Dongguan 523000, China
| | - Shaobing Zhang
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
- Dongguan Proof-of-Concept Centers for Medical Use, Guangdong Xinghai Institute of Cell, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Bihua Lin
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Ziyu Ye
- Dongguan Proof-of-Concept Centers for Medical Use, Guangdong Xinghai Institute of Cell, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Caihong Li
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Xianxiu Qiu
- Dongguan Key Laboratory of Medical Bioactive Molecular Developmental and Translational Research, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Yanfang Liang
- Department of Pathology, Binhaiwan Central Hospital of Dongguan, Dongguan 523000, China
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10
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Bi G, Liang J, Bian Y, Shan G, Huang Y, Lu T, Zhang H, Jin X, Chen Z, Zhao M, Fan H, Wang Q, Gan B, Zhan C. Polyamine-mediated ferroptosis amplification acts as a targetable vulnerability in cancer. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2461. [PMID: 38504107 PMCID: PMC10951362 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46776-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Targeting ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death triggered by the lethal overload of lipid peroxides, in cancer therapy is impeded by our limited understanding of the intersection of tumour's metabolic feature and ferroptosis vulnerability. In the present study, arginine is identified as a ferroptotic promoter using a metabolites library. This effect is mainly achieved through arginine's conversion to polyamines, which exerts their potent ferroptosis-promoting property in an H2O2-dependent manner. Notably, the expression of ornithine decarboxylase 1 (ODC1), the critical enzyme catalysing polyamine synthesis, is significantly activated by the ferroptosis signal--iron overload--through WNT/MYC signalling, as well as the subsequent elevated polyamine synthesis, thus forming a ferroptosis-iron overload-WNT/MYC-ODC1-polyamine-H2O2 positive feedback loop that amplifies ferroptosis. Meanwhile, we notice that ferroptotic cells release enhanced polyamine-containing extracellular vesicles into the microenvironment, thereby further sensitizing neighbouring cells to ferroptosis and accelerating the "spread" of ferroptosis in the tumour region. Besides, polyamine supplementation also sensitizes cancer cells or xenograft tumours to radiotherapy or chemotherapy through inducing ferroptosis. Considering that cancer cells are often characterized by elevated intracellular polyamine pools, our results indicate that polyamine metabolism exposes a targetable vulnerability to ferroptosis and represents an exciting opportunity for therapeutic strategies for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoshu Bi
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiaqi Liang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yunyi Bian
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Guangyao Shan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiwei Huang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tao Lu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Huan Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xing Jin
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhencong Chen
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengnan Zhao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Fan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qun Wang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Boyi Gan
- Department of Experimental Radiation Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Cheng Zhan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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11
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Wang N, Xu X, Guan F, Zheng Y, Shou Y, Xu T, Shen G, Chen H, Lin Y, Cong W, Jin L, Zhu Z. α-Catenin promotes dermal fibroblasts proliferation and migration during wound healing via FAK/YAP activation. FASEB J 2024; 38:e23410. [PMID: 38193545 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202302251r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Skin wound healing is a complex and organized biological process, and the dermal fibroblasts play a crucial role. α-Catenin is known to be involved in regulating various cellular signals, and its role in wound healing remains unclear. Here, we have identified the pivotal role of the α-catenin/FAK/YAP signaling axis in the proliferation and migration of dermal fibroblasts, which contributes to the process of skin wound healing. Briefly, when α-catenin was knocked down specifically in dermal fibroblasts, the wound healing rate is significantly delayed. Moreover, interfering with α-catenin can impede the proliferation and migration of dermal fibroblasts both in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, the overexpression of α-catenin upregulates the nuclear accumulation of YAP and transcription of downstream target genes, resulting in enhanced the proliferation and migration of dermal fibroblasts. Furthermore, the FAK Tyr397 phosphorylation inhibitor blocked the promoting effects of α-catenin on YAP activation. Importantly, the continuous phosphorylation mutation of FAK Tyr397 reversed the retardatory effects of α-catenin knockdown on wound healing, by increasing the vitality of fibroblasts. Likewise, α-catenin/FAK was validated as a therapeutic target for wound healing in the db/db chronic trauma model. In summary, our findings have revealed a novel mechanism by which α-catenin facilitates the function of fibroblasts through the activity of the FAK/YAP signaling axis. These findings define a promising therapeutic strategy for accelerating the wound healing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Xiejun Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Fangqian Guan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yeyi Zheng
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yanni Shou
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Tianpeng Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Guoxiu Shen
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Hui Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yifan Lin
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Weitao Cong
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Litai Jin
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
| | - Zhongxin Zhu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, P.R. China
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12
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Yang Y, Zhou H, Huang X, Wu C, Zheng K, Deng J, Zheng Y, Wang J, Chi X, Ma X, Pan H, Shen R, Pan D, Liu B. Innate immune and proinflammatory signals activate the Hippo pathway via a Tak1-STRIPAK-Tao axis. Nat Commun 2024; 15:145. [PMID: 38168080 PMCID: PMC10761881 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44542-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
The Hippo pathway controls developmental, homeostatic and regenerative tissue growth, and is frequently dysregulated in various diseases. Although this pathway can be activated by innate immune/inflammatory stimuli, the underlying mechanism is not fully understood. Here, we identify a conserved signaling cascade that leads to Hippo pathway activation by innate immune/inflammatory signals. We show that Tak1, a key kinase in innate immune/inflammatory signaling, activates the Hippo pathway by inducing the lysosomal degradation of Cka, an essential subunit of the STRIPAK PP2A complex that suppresses Hippo signaling. Suppression of STRIPAK results in the activation of Hippo pathway through Tao-Hpo signaling. We further show that Tak1-mediated Hippo signaling is involved in processes ranging from cell death to phagocytosis and innate immune memory. Our findings thus reveal a molecular connection between innate immune/inflammatory signaling and the evolutionally conserved Hippo pathway, thus contributing to our understanding of infectious, inflammatory and malignant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Huijing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Xiawei Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Chengfang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Kewei Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Jingrong Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Yonggang Zheng
- Department of Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Jiahui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Xiaofeng Chi
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Xianjue Ma
- Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310024, China
| | - Huimin Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Rui Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Duojia Pan
- Department of Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Bo Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China.
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13
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Zhou W, Lim A, Edderkaoui M, Osipov A, Wu H, Wang Q, Pandol S. Role of YAP Signaling in Regulation of Programmed Cell Death and Drug Resistance in Cancer. Int J Biol Sci 2024; 20:15-28. [PMID: 38164167 PMCID: PMC10750275 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.83586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Although recent advances in cancer treatment significantly improved the prognosis of patients, drug resistance remains a major challenge. Targeting programmed cell death is a major approach of antitumor drug development. Deregulation of programmed cell death (PCD) contributes to resistance to a variety of cancer therapeutics. Yes-associated protein (YAP) and its paralog TAZ, the main downstream effectors of the Hippo pathway, are aberrantly activated in a variety of human malignancies. The Hippo-YAP pathway, which was originally identified in Drosophila, is well conserved in humans and plays a defining role in regulation of cell fate, tissue growth and regeneration. Activation of YAP signaling has emerged as a key mechanism involved in promoting cancer cell proliferation, metastasis, and drug resistance. Understanding the role of YAP/TAZ signaling network in PCD and drug resistance could facilitate the development of effective strategies for cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhou
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Adrian Lim
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Mouad Edderkaoui
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Arsen Osipov
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Heshui Wu
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Stephen Pandol
- Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
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14
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Wei L, Gao J, Wang L, Tao Q, Tu C. Hippo/YAP signaling pathway: a new therapeutic target for diabetes mellitus and vascular complications. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab 2023; 14:20420188231220134. [PMID: 38152659 PMCID: PMC10752099 DOI: 10.1177/20420188231220134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic angiopathy, which includes diabetic kidney disease (DKD), cardio-cerebrovascular disease, and diabetic retinopathy (DR) among other diseases, is one of the most common complications affecting diabetic patients. Among these, DKD, which is a major cause of morbidity and mortality, affects about 40% of diabetic patients. Similarly, DR involves retinal neovascularization and neurodegeneration as a result of chronic hyperglycemia and is the main cause of visual impairment and blindness. In addition, inflammation also promotes atherosclerosis and diabetes, with atherosclerosis-related cardiovascular diseases being often a main cause of disability or death in diabetic patients. Given that vascular diseases caused by diabetes negatively impact human health, it is therefore important to identify appropriate treatments. In this context, some studies have found that the Hippo/Yes-associated protein (YAP) pathway is a highly evolutionarily conserved protein kinase signal pathway that regulates organ growth and size through its effector signaling pathway Transcriptional co-Activator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) and its YAP. YAP is a key factor in the Hippo pathway. The activation of YAP regulates gluconeogenesis, thereby regulating glucose tolerance levels; silencing the YAP gene thereby prevents the formation of glomerular fibrosis. YAP can combine with TEA domain family members to regulate the proliferation and migration of retinal vascular endothelial cells (ECs), so YAP plays a prominent role in the formation and pathology of retinal vessels. In addition, YAP/TAZ activation and translocation to the nucleus promote endothelial inflammation and monocyte-EC attachment, which can increase diabetes-induced cardiovascular atherosclerosis. Hippo/YAP signaling pathway provides a potential therapeutic target for diabetic angiopathy, which can prevent the progression of diabetes to DR and improve renal fibrosis and cardio-vascular atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Wei
- Department of Internal Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Changzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jingjing Gao
- Zhonglou District Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Liangzhi Wang
- Department of Internal Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Changzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qianru Tao
- Department of Nephrology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 185 Juqian Road, Changzhou, 213000, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chao Tu
- Department of Internal Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 185 Juqian Road, Changzhou, 213000, Jiangsu, China
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15
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Driskill JH, Pan D. Control of stem cell renewal and fate by YAP and TAZ. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2023; 24:895-911. [PMID: 37626124 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-023-00644-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Complex physiological processes control whether stem cells self-renew, differentiate or remain quiescent. Two decades of research have placed the Hippo pathway, a highly conserved kinase signalling cascade, and its downstream molecular effectors YAP and TAZ at the nexus of this decision. YAP and TAZ translate complex biological cues acting on stem cells - from mechanical forces to cellular metabolism - into genome-wide effects to mediate stem cell functions. While aberrant YAP/TAZ activity drives stem cell dysfunction in ageing, tumorigenesis and disease, therapeutic targeting of Hippo signalling and YAP/TAZ can boost stem cell activity to enhance regeneration. In this Review, we discuss how YAP/TAZ control the self-renewal, fate and plasticity of stem cells in different contexts, how dysregulation of YAP/TAZ in stem cells leads to disease, and how therapeutic modalities targeting YAP/TAZ may benefit regenerative medicine and cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan H Driskill
- Department of Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Duojia Pan
- Department of Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
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16
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Kang Q, Zhu X, Ren D, Ky A, MacDougald OA, O'Rourke RW, Rui L. Adipose METTL14-Elicited N 6 -Methyladenosine Promotes Obesity, Insulin Resistance, and NAFLD Through Suppressing β Adrenergic Signaling and Lipolysis. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2301645. [PMID: 37526326 PMCID: PMC10558699 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202301645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
White adipose tissue (WAT) lipolysis releases free fatty acids as a key energy substance to support metabolism in fasting, cold exposure, and exercise. Atgl, in concert with Cgi-58, catalyzes the first lipolytic reaction. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) stimulates lipolysis via neurotransmitter norepinephrine that activates adipocyte β adrenergic receptors (Adrb1-3). In obesity, adipose Adrb signaling and lipolysis are impaired, contributing to pathogenic WAT expansion; however, the underling mechanism remains poorly understood. Recent studies highlight importance of N6 -methyladenosine (m6A)-based RNA modification in health and disease. METTL14 heterodimerizes with METTL3 to form an RNA methyltransferase complex that installs m6A in transcripts. Here, this work shows that adipose Mettl3 and Mettl14 are influenced by fasting, refeeding, and insulin, and are upregulated in high fat diet (HFD) induced obesity. Adipose Adrb2, Adrb3, Atgl, and Cgi-58 transcript m6A contents are elevated in obesity. Mettl14 ablation decreases these transcripts' m6A contents and increases their translations and protein levels in adipocytes, thereby increasing Adrb signaling and lipolysis. Mice with adipocyte-specific deletion of Mettl14 are resistant to HFD-induced obesity, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). These results unravel a METTL14/m6A/translation pathway governing Adrb signaling and lipolysis. METTL14/m6A-based epitranscriptomic reprogramming impairs adipose Adrb signaling and lipolysis, promoting obesity, NAFLD, and metabolic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Kang
- Department of Molecular and Integrative PhysiologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Elizabeth Weiser Caswell Diabetes InstituteUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
| | - Xiaorong Zhu
- Department of Molecular and Integrative PhysiologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Department of EndocrinologyBeijing Tongren HospitalCapital Medical UniversityBeijing Diabetes InstituteBeijing100730China
| | - Decheng Ren
- Department of MedicineUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIL60637USA
| | - Alexander Ky
- Department of SurgeryUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMI48109USA
| | - Ormond A. MacDougald
- Department of Molecular and Integrative PhysiologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Elizabeth Weiser Caswell Diabetes InstituteUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Department of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMI48109USA
| | - Robert W. O'Rourke
- Department of SurgeryUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Department of SurgeryVeterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare SystemAn ArborMI48105USA
| | - Liangyou Rui
- Department of Molecular and Integrative PhysiologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Elizabeth Weiser Caswell Diabetes InstituteUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Department of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMI48109USA
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17
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Gobert AP, Smith TM, Latour YL, Asim M, Barry DP, Allaman MM, Williams KJ, McNamara KM, Delgado AG, Short SP, Mirmira RG, Rose KL, Schey KL, Zagol-Ikapitte I, Coleman JS, Boutaud O, Zhao S, Piazuelo MB, Washington MK, Coburn LA, Wilson KT. Hypusination Maintains Intestinal Homeostasis and Prevents Colitis and Carcinogenesis by Enhancing Aldehyde Detoxification. Gastroenterology 2023; 165:656-669.e8. [PMID: 37271289 PMCID: PMC10527201 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2023.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The amino acid hypusine, synthesized from the polyamine spermidine by the enzyme deoxyhypusine synthase (DHPS), is essential for the activity of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (EIF5A). The role of hypusinated EIF5A (EIF5AHyp) remains unknown in intestinal homeostasis. Our aim was to investigate EIF5AHyp in the gut epithelium in inflammation and carcinogenesis. METHODS We used human colon tissue messenger RNA samples and publicly available transcriptomic datasets, tissue microarrays, and patient-derived colon organoids. Mice with intestinal epithelial-specific deletion of Dhps were investigated at baseline and in models of colitis and colon carcinogenesis. RESULTS We found that patients with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease exhibit reduced colon levels of DHPS messenger RNA and DHPS protein and reduced levels of EIF5AHyp. Similarly, colonic organoids from colitis patients also show down-regulated DHPS expression. Mice with intestinal epithelial-specific deletion of Dhps develop spontaneous colon hyperplasia, epithelial proliferation, crypt distortion, and inflammation. Furthermore, these mice are highly susceptible to experimental colitis and show exacerbated colon tumorigenesis when treated with a carcinogen. Transcriptomic and proteomic analysis on colonic epithelial cells demonstrated that loss of hypusination induces multiple pathways related to cancer and immune response. Moreover, we found that hypusination enhances translation of numerous enzymes involved in aldehyde detoxification, including glutathione S-transferases and aldehyde dehydrogenases. Accordingly, hypusination-deficient mice exhibit increased levels of aldehyde adducts in the colon, and their treatment with a scavenger of electrophiles reduces colitis. CONCLUSIONS Hypusination in intestinal epithelial cells has a key role in the prevention of colitis and colorectal cancer, and enhancement of this pathway via supplementation of spermidine could have a therapeutic impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain P Gobert
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Center for Mucosal Inflammation and Cancer, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Program in Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee.
| | - Thaddeus M Smith
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Yvonne L Latour
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Mohammad Asim
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Daniel P Barry
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Margaret M Allaman
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Kamery J Williams
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Kara M McNamara
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Program in Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Alberto G Delgado
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Sarah P Short
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Center for Mucosal Inflammation and Cancer, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Raghavendra G Mirmira
- Kovler Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Kristie L Rose
- Department of Biochemistry, Mass Spectrometry Research Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Kevin L Schey
- Department of Biochemistry, Mass Spectrometry Research Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Irene Zagol-Ikapitte
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Jeremy S Coleman
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Olivier Boutaud
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Shilin Zhao
- Department of Biostatistics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - M Blanca Piazuelo
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Center for Mucosal Inflammation and Cancer, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - M Kay Washington
- Center for Mucosal Inflammation and Cancer, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Lori A Coburn
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Center for Mucosal Inflammation and Cancer, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Program in Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Veterans Affairs Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Keith T Wilson
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Center for Mucosal Inflammation and Cancer, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Program in Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Veterans Affairs Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, Tennessee.
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18
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Okamoto K, Ando T, Izumi H, Kobayashi SS, Shintani T, Gutkind JS, Yanamoto S, Miyauchi M, Kajiya M. AXL activates YAP through the EGFR-LATS1/2 axis and confers resistance to EGFR-targeted drugs in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Oncogene 2023; 42:2869-2877. [PMID: 37591955 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-023-02810-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
The Hippo signaling pathway and its downstream effector YAP play a central role in cell proliferation. Dysregulation of the Hippo pathway triggers YAP hyperactivation, thereby inducing head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Recently, we reported that EGFR promotes tyrosine phosphorylation of MOB1 and subsequent LATS1/2 inactivation, which are core components of the Hippo pathway, resulting in YAP activation. However, EGFR-targeted monotherapy has shown a low response rate in HNSCC patients. Given that YAP is activated in patient samples refractory to EGFR-targeted therapy, EGFR inhibitors may temporarily inactivate YAP, but intrinsic hyperactivation or acquired reactivation of YAP may confer resistance to EGFR inhibitors in HNSCC cells. The mechanism by which YAP is activated in HNSCC resistant to EGFR inhibitors remains unclear. Comprehensive transcriptional analysis revealed that AXL activates YAP through a novel mechanism: AXL heterodimerizes with EGFR, thereby activating YAP via the EGFR-LATS1/2 axis. The combination of AXL and EGFR inhibitors synergistically inactivates YAP and suppresses the viability of HNSCC and lung adenocarcinoma cells. In turn, LATS1/2 knockout and YAP hyperactivation confer resistance to the synergistic effects of these inhibitors. Our findings suggest that co-targeting both AXL and EGFR represent a promising therapeutic approach in patients with EGFR-altered cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kento Okamoto
- Department of Oral Oncology, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Toshinori Ando
- Center of Oral Clinical Examination, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan.
| | - Hiroki Izumi
- Department of Thoracic Oncology, National Cancer Center Hospital East, Kashiwa, Japan
| | - Susumu S Kobayashi
- Division of Translational Genomics, Exploratory Oncology Research and Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center, Kashiwa, Japan
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tomoaki Shintani
- Center of Oral Clinical Examination, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - J Silvio Gutkind
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Souichi Yanamoto
- Department of Oral Oncology, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Mutsumi Miyauchi
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathobiology, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Mikihito Kajiya
- Center of Oral Clinical Examination, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima, Japan
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19
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Zimmermann A, Hofer SJ, Madeo F. Molecular targets of spermidine: implications for cancer suppression. Cell Stress 2023; 7:50-58. [PMID: 37431488 PMCID: PMC10320397 DOI: 10.15698/cst2023.07.281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Spermidine is a ubiquitous, natural polyamine with geroprotective features. Supplementation of spermidine extends the lifespan of yeast, worms, flies, and mice, and dietary spermidine intake correlates with reduced human mortality. However, the crucial role of polyamines in cell proliferation has also implicated polyamine metabolism in neoplastic diseases, such as cancer. While depleting intracellular polyamine biosynthesis halts tumor growth in mouse models, lifelong external spermidine administration in mice does not increase cancer incidence. In contrast, a series of recent findings points to anti-neoplastic properties of spermidine administration in the context of immunotherapy. Various molecular mechanisms for the anti-aging and anti-cancer properties have been proposed, including the promotion of autophagy, enhanced translational control, and augmented mitochondrial function. For instance, spermidine allosterically activates mitochondrial trifunctional protein (MTP), a bipartite protein complex that mediates three of the four steps of mitochondrial fatty acid (β-oxidation. Through this action, spermidine supplementation is able to restore MTP-mediated mitochondrial respiratory capacity in naïve CD8+ T cells to juvenile levels and thereby improves T cell activation in aged mice. Here, we put this finding into the context of the previously described molecular target space of spermidine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Zimmermann
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, NAWI Graz, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Field of Excellence BioHealth, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Sebastian J. Hofer
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, NAWI Graz, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Field of Excellence BioHealth, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Frank Madeo
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, NAWI Graz, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Field of Excellence BioHealth, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed Graz, Graz, Austria
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20
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Ji M, Chen D, Shu Y, Dong S, Zhang Z, Zheng H, Jin X, Zheng L, Liu Y, Zheng Y, Zhang W, Wang S, Zhou G, Li B, Ji B, Yang Y, Xu Y, Chang L. The role of mechano-regulated YAP/TAZ in erectile dysfunction. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3758. [PMID: 37353497 PMCID: PMC10290143 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39009-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors (PDE5is) constitute the primary therapeutic option for treating erectile dysfunction (ED). Nevertheless, a substantial proportion of patients, approximately 30%, do not respond to PDE5i treatment. Therefore, new treatment methods are needed. In this study, we identified a pathway that contributes to male erectile function. We show that mechano-regulated YAP/TAZ signaling in smooth muscle cells (SMCs) upregulates adrenomedullin transcription, which relaxed the SMCs to maintain erection. Using single-nucleus RNA sequencing, we investigated how penile erection stretches the SMCs, inducing YAP/TAZ activity. Subsequently, we demonstrate that YAP/TAZ plays a role in erectile function and penile rehabilitation, using genetic lesions and various animal models. This mechanism relies on direct transcriptional regulation of adrenomedullin by YAP/TAZ, which in turn modulates penile smooth muscle contraction. Importantly, conventional PDE5i, which targets NO-cGMP signaling, does not promote erectile function in YAP/TAZ-deficient ED model mice. In contrast, by activating the YAP/TAZ-adrenomedullin cascade, mechanostimulation improves erectile function in PDE5i nonrespondent ED model rats and mice. Furthermore, using clinical retrospective observational data, we found that mechanostimulation significantly promotes erectile function in patients irrespective of PDE5i use. Our studies lay the groundwork for exploring the mechano-YAP/TAZ-adrenomedullin axis as a potential target in the treatment of ED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mintao Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Dongsheng Chen
- Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, and Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Yinyin Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Shuai Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhisen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Haimeng Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Xiaoni Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Lijun Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Urology, The Affiliated Hospital of Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 130021, Changchun, China
| | - Yifei Zheng
- Institute of Biomechanics and Applications, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Zhejiang University, 310027, Hangzhou, China
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 325001, Wenzhou, China
| | | | - Shiyou Wang
- Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, and Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Guangming Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Bingyan Li
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Soochow University of Public Health, 215123, Suzhou, China
| | - Baohua Ji
- Institute of Biomechanics and Applications, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Zhejiang University, 310027, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yong Yang
- Department of Urology, The Affiliated Hospital of Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 130021, Changchun, China.
| | - Yongde Xu
- Department of Urology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, 100050, Beijing, China.
| | - Lei Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Medical College of Soochow University, 215123, Suzhou, China.
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21
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Luo J, Deng L, Zou H, Guo Y, Tong T, Huang M, Ling G, Li P. New insights into the ambivalent role of YAP/TAZ in human cancers. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2023; 42:130. [PMID: 37211598 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-023-02704-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Hippo signaling was first identified in Drosophila as a key controller of organ size by regulating cell proliferation and anti-apoptosis. Subsequent studies have shown that this pathway is highly conserved in mammals, and its dysregulation is implicated in multiple events of cancer development and progression. Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) (hereafter YAP/TAZ) are the downstream effectors of the Hippo pathway. YAP/TAZ overexpression or activation is sufficient to induce tumor initiation and progression, as well as recurrence and therapeutic resistance. However, there is growing evidence that YAP/TAZ also exert a tumor-suppressive function in a context-dependent manner. Therefore, caution should be taken when targeting Hippo signaling in clinical trials in the future. In this review article, we will first give an overview of YAP/TAZ and their oncogenic roles in various cancers and then systematically summarize the tumor-suppressive functions of YAP/TAZ in different contexts. Based on these findings, we will further discuss the clinical implications of YAP/TAZ-based tumor targeted therapy and potential future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Luo
- Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Deng
- Department of General Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hailin Zou
- Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yibo Guo
- Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tongyu Tong
- Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- Department of Urology, Pelvic Floor Disorders Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingli Huang
- Department of General Surgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Gengqiang Ling
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Li
- Scientific Research Center, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Digestive Cancer Research, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 628 Zhenyuan Road, Shenzhen, 518107, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
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22
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Liu Y, Zhang B, Zhou Y, Xing Y, Wang Y, Jia Y, Liu D. Targeting Hippo pathway: A novel strategy for Helicobacter pylori-induced gastric cancer treatment. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 161:114549. [PMID: 36958190 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The Hippo pathway plays an important role in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation; it is a crucial regulatory pathway in organ development and tumor growth. Infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) increases the risk of developing gastric cancer. In recent years, significant progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms by which H. pylori infection promotes the development and progression of gastric cancer via the Hippo pathway. Exploring the Hippo pathway molecules may yield new diagnostic and therapeutic targets for H. pylori-induced gastric cancer. The current article reviews the composition and regulatory mechanism of the Hippo pathway, as well as the research progress of the Hippo pathway in the occurrence and development of H. pylori-related gastric cancer, in order to provide a broader perspective for the study and prevention of gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunyun Liu
- Research Center of Basic Medicine, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, People's Republic of China; Research Center of Basic Medicine, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Bingkai Zhang
- Department of Anorectal Surgery, Qingzhou People's Hospital, Qingzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yimin Zhou
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanxin Xing
- Research Center of Basic Medicine, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, People's Republic of China; Research Center of Basic Medicine, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yunshan Wang
- Research Center of Basic Medicine, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, People's Republic of China; Research Center of Basic Medicine, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanfei Jia
- Research Center of Basic Medicine, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, People's Republic of China; Research Center of Basic Medicine, Jinan Central Hospital, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Duanrui Liu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, People's Republic of China; Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, People's Republic of China.
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23
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Schultz CR, Sheldon RD, Xie H, Demireva EY, Uhl KL, Agnew DW, Geerts D, Bachmann AS. New K50R mutant mouse models reveal impaired hypusination of eif5a2 with alterations in cell metabolite landscape. Biol Open 2023; 12:290754. [PMID: 36848144 PMCID: PMC10084858 DOI: 10.1242/bio.059647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A1 (eIF5A1) and 5A2 (eIF5A2) are important proteins in a variety of physiological and pathophysiological processes and their function has been linked to neurodevelopmental disorders, cancer, and viral infections. Here, we report two new genome-edited mouse models, generated using a CRISPR-Cas9 approach, in which the amino acid residue lysine 50 is replaced with arginine 50 (K50R) in eIF5A1 or in the closely related eIF5A2 protein. This mutation prevents the spermidine-dependent post-translational formation of hypusine, a unique lysine derivative that is necessary for activation of eIF5A1 and eIF5A2. Mouse brain lysates from homozygous eif5a2-K50R mutant mice (eif5a2K50R/K50R) confirmed the absence of hypusine formation of eIF5A2, and metabolomic analysis of primary mouse dermal fibroblasts revealed significant alterations in the metabolite landscape compared to controls including increased levels of tryptophan, kyrunenine, pyridoxine, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, riboflavin, flavin adenine dinucleotide, pantothenate, and coenzyme A. Further supported by new publicly available bioinformatics data, these new mouse models represent excellent in vivo models to study hypusine-dependent biological processes, hypusination-related disorders caused by eIF5A1 and eIF5A2 gene aberrations or mRNA expression dysregulation, as well as several major human cancer types and potential therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad R Schultz
- Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Ryan D Sheldon
- Core Technologies and Services, Mass Spectrometry Core, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Huirong Xie
- Transgenic and Genome Editing Facility, Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Research Technology Support Facility, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Elena Y Demireva
- Transgenic and Genome Editing Facility, Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Research Technology Support Facility, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Katie L Uhl
- Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Dalen W Agnew
- Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Dirk Geerts
- Department of Hematology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Location VUMC, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - André S Bachmann
- Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
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Pharmacological Activation of YAP/TAZ by Targeting LATS1/2 Enhances Periodontal Tissue Regeneration in a Murine Model. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24020970. [PMID: 36674487 PMCID: PMC9866423 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24020970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to their multi-differentiation potential, periodontal ligament fibroblasts (PDLF) play pivotal roles in periodontal tissue regeneration in vivo. Several in vitro studies have suggested that PDLFs can transmit mechanical stress into favorable basic cellular functions. However, the application of mechanical force for periodontal regeneration therapy is not expected to exhibit an effective prognosis since mechanical forces, such as traumatic occlusion, also exacerbate periodontal tissue degeneration and loss. Herein, we established a standardized murine periodontal regeneration model and evaluated the regeneration process associated with cementum remodeling. By administering a kinase inhibitor of YAP/TAZ suppressor molecules, such as large tumor suppressor homolog 1/2 (LATS1/2), we found that the activation of YAP/TAZ, a key downstream effector of mechanical signals, accelerated periodontal tissue regeneration due to the activation of PDLF cell proliferation. Mechanistically, among six kinds of MAP4Ks previously reported as upstream kinases that suppressed YAP/TAZ transcriptional activity through LATS1/2 in various types of cells, MAP4K4 was identified as the predominant MAP4K in PDLF and contributed to cell proliferation and differentiation depending on its kinase activity. Ultimately, pharmacological activation of YAP/TAZ by inhibiting upstream inhibitory kinase in PDLFs is a valuable strategy for improving the clinical outcomes of periodontal regeneration therapies.
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25
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Kim M, Delgado E, Ko S. DNA methylation in cell plasticity and malignant transformation in liver diseases. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 241:108334. [PMID: 36535346 PMCID: PMC9841769 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The liver possesses extraordinary regenerative capacity mainly attributable to the ability of hepatocytes (HCs) and biliary epithelial cells (BECs) to self-replicate. This ability is left over from their bipotent parent cell, the hepatoblast, during development. When this innate regeneration is compromised due to the absence of proliferative parenchymal cells, such as during cirrhosis, HCs and BEC can transdifferentiate; thus, adding another layer of complexity to the process of liver repair. In addition, dysregulated lineage maintenance in these two cell populations has been shown to promote malignant growth in experimental conditions. Here, malignant transformation, driven in part by insufficient maintenance of lineage reprogramming, contributes to end-stage liver disease. Epigenetic changes are key drivers for cell fate decisions as well as transformation by finetuning overall transcription and gene expression. In this review, we address how altered DNA methylation contributes to the initiation and progression of hepatic cell fate conversion and cancer formation. We also discussed the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of targeting DNA methylation in liver cancer, its current limitations, and what future research is necessary to facilitate its contribution to clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minwook Kim
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | - Evan Delgado
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | - Sungjin Ko
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America.
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26
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Dong L, Zhu J, Deng A, Wei J, Li J, Mao X, Jia Z. Relationship between histone demethylase LSD family and development and prognosis of gastric cancer. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1170773. [PMID: 37207209 PMCID: PMC10188996 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1170773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective to elucidate the correlation between histone demethylase and gastric cancer. Research object histone demethylase and gastric cancer. Results As one of the important regulatory mechanisms in molecular biology and epigenetics, histone modification plays an important role in gastric cancer including downstream gene expression regulation and epigenetics effect. Both histone methyltransferase and histone demethylases are involved in the formation and maintaining different of histone methylation status, which in turn through a variety of vital molecules and signaling pathways involved in the recognition of histone methylation modification caused by the downstream biological process, eventually participate in the regulation of chromatin function, and with a variety of important physiological activities, especially closely related to the occurrence of gastric cancer and embryonic development. Conclusion This paper intends to review the research progress in this field from the aspects of histone methylation modification and the protein structure, catalytic mechanism and biological function of the important histone demethylases LSD1 and LSD2, in order to provide the theoretical reference for further understanding and exploration of histone demethylases in development and prognosis of gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyan Dong
- Department of General Surgery, General Hospital, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Jiaxing Zhu
- International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Beroni Group Limited, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Anyi Deng
- The Biomedical Translational Research Institute, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junping Wei
- The Biomedical Translational Research Institute, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiawei Li
- The Biomedical Translational Research Institute, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xinru Mao
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhenghu Jia
- International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Beroni Group Limited, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Biomedical Translational Research Institute and Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Immunology and Antibody Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
- Research and Development Center, Guangzhou Purui Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Zhenghu Jia,
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27
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Chen Y, Shi S, Dai Y. Research progress of therapeutic drugs for doxorubicin-induced cardiomyopathy. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 156:113903. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/06/2022] Open
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Ginsenoside compound K increases glucagon-like peptide-1 release and L-cell abundance in db/db mice through TGR5/YAP signaling. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 113:109405. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Ando T, Okamoto K, Shintani T, Yanamoto S, Miyauchi M, Gutkind JS, Kajiya M. Integrating Genetic Alterations and the Hippo Pathway in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma for Future Precision Medicine. J Pers Med 2022; 12:jpm12101544. [PMID: 36294681 PMCID: PMC9604790 DOI: 10.3390/jpm12101544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic alterations and dysregulation of signaling pathways are indispensable for the initiation and progression of cancer. Understanding the genetic, molecular, and signaling diversities in cancer patients has driven a dynamic change in cancer therapy. Patients can select a suitable molecularly targeted therapy or immune checkpoint inhibitor based on the driver gene alterations determined by sequencing of cancer tissue. This “precision medicine” approach requires detailed elucidation of the mechanisms connecting genetic alterations of driver genes and aberrant downstream signaling pathways. The regulatory mechanisms of the Hippo pathway and Yes-associated protein/transcriptional co-activator with PDZ binding motif (YAP/TAZ) that have central roles in cancer cell proliferation are not fully understood, reflecting their recent discovery. Nevertheless, emerging evidence has shown that various genetic alterations dysregulate the Hippo pathway and hyperactivate YAP/TAZ in cancers, including head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Here, we summarize the latest evidence linking genetic alterations and the Hippo pathway in HNSCC, with the aim of contributing to the continued development of precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshinori Ando
- Center of Oral Clinical Examination, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-82-257-5727
| | - Kento Okamoto
- Department of Oral Oncology, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan
| | - Tomoaki Shintani
- Center of Oral Clinical Examination, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
| | - Souichi Yanamoto
- Department of Oral Oncology, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan
| | - Mutsumi Miyauchi
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathobiology, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan
| | - J. Silvio Gutkind
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Mikihito Kajiya
- Center of Oral Clinical Examination, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
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30
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Bai S, Lan Y, Fu S, Cheng H, Lu Z, Liu G. Connecting Calcium-Based Nanomaterials and Cancer: From Diagnosis to Therapy. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2022; 14:145. [PMID: 35849180 PMCID: PMC9294135 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-022-00894-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
As the indispensable second cellular messenger, calcium signaling is involved in the regulation of almost all physiological processes by activating specific target proteins. The importance of calcium ions (Ca2+) makes its "Janus nature" strictly regulated by its concentration. Abnormal regulation of calcium signals may cause some diseases; however, artificial regulation of calcium homeostasis in local lesions may also play a therapeutic role. "Calcium overload," for example, is characterized by excessive enrichment of intracellular Ca2+, which irreversibly switches calcium signaling from "positive regulation" to "reverse destruction," leading to cell death. However, this undesirable death could be defined as "calcicoptosis" to offer a novel approach for cancer treatment. Indeed, Ca2+ is involved in various cancer diagnostic and therapeutic events, including calcium overload-induced calcium homeostasis disorder, calcium channels dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, calcium-associated immunoregulation, cell/vascular/tumor calcification, and calcification-mediated CT imaging. In parallel, the development of multifunctional calcium-based nanomaterials (e.g., calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, calcium peroxide, and hydroxyapatite) is becoming abundantly available. This review will highlight the latest insights of the calcium-based nanomaterials, explain their application, and provide novel perspective. Identifying and characterizing new patterns of calcium-dependent signaling and exploiting the disease element linkage offer additional translational opportunities for cancer theranostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, People's Republic of China
| | - Yulu Lan
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiying Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongwei Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhixiang Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, People's Republic of China.
| | - Gang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, People's Republic of China.
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, People's Republic of China.
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31
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Nanospermidine in Combination with Nanofenretinide Induces Cell Death in Neuroblastoma Cell Lines. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14061215. [PMID: 35745787 PMCID: PMC9229898 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14061215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A new strategy to cause cell death in tumors might be the increase of intracellular polyamines at concentrations above their physiological values to trigger the production of oxidation metabolites at levels exceeding cell tolerance. To test this hypothesis, we prepared nanospermidine as a carrier for spermidine penetration into the cells, able to escape the polyamine transport system that strictly regulates intracellular polyamine levels. Nanospermidine was prepared by spermidine encapsulation in nanomicelles and was characterized by size, zeta potential, loading, dimensional stability to dilution, and stability to spermidine leakage. Antitumor activity, ROS production, and cell penetration ability were evaluated in vitro in two neuroblastoma cell lines (NLF and BR6). Nanospermidine was tested as a single agent and in combination with nanofenretinide. Free spermidine was also tested as a comparison. The results indicated that the nanomicelles successfully transported spermidine into the cells inducing cell death in a concentration range (150–200 μM) tenfold lower than that required to provide similar cytotoxicity with free spermidine (1500–2000 μM). Nanofenretinide provided a cytostatic effect in combination with the lowest nanospermidine concentrations evaluated and slightly improved nanospermidine cytotoxicity at the highest concentrations. These data suggest that nanospermidine has the potential to become a new approach in cancer treatment. At the cellular level, in fact, it exploits polyamine catabolism by means of biocompatible doses of spermidine and, in vivo settings, it can exploit the selective accumulation of nanomedicines at the tumor site. Nanofenretinide combination further improves its efficacy. Furthermore, the proven ability of spermidine to activate macrophages and lymphocytes suggests that nanospermidine could inhibit immunosuppression in the tumor environment.
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