Atomic iron and titanium in the atmosphere of the exoplanet KELT-9b

A solar C/O and sub-solar metallicity in a hot Jupiter atmosphere

Measurements of the atmospheric carbon (C) and oxygen (O) relative to hydrogen (H) in hot Jupiters (relative to their host stars) provide insight into their formation location and subsequent orbital migration^1,2. Hot Jupiters that form beyond the major volatile (H₂O/CO/CO₂) ice lines and subsequently migrate post disk-dissipation are predicted have atmospheric carbon-to-oxygen ratios (C/O) near 1 and subsolar metallicities², whereas planets that migrate through the disk before dissipation are predicted to be heavily polluted by infalling O-rich icy planetesimals, resulting in C/O < 0.5 and super-solar metallicities^1,2. Previous observations of hot Jupiters have been able to provide bounded constraints on either H₂O (refs. ^3-5) or CO (refs. ^6,7), but not both for the same planet, leaving uncertain⁴ the true elemental C and O inventory and subsequent C/O and metallicity determinations. Here we report spectroscopic observations of a typical transiting hot Jupiter, WASP-77Ab. From these, we determine the atmospheric gas volume mixing ratio constraints on both H₂O and CO (9.5 × 10^-5-1.5 × 10^-4 and 1.2 × 10^-4-2.6 × 10^-4, respectively). From these bounded constraints, we are able to derive the atmospheric C/H ([Formula: see text] × solar) and O/H ([Formula: see text] × solar) abundances and the corresponding atmospheric carbon-to-oxygen ratio (C/O = 0.59 ± 0.08; the solar value is 0.55). The sub-solar (C+O)/H ([Formula: see text] × solar) is suggestive of a metal-depleted atmosphere relative to what is expected for Jovian-like planets¹ while the near solar value of C/O rules out the disk-free migration/C-rich² atmosphere scenario.

Gaseous atomic nickel in the coma of interstellar comet 2I/Borisov

On 31 August 2019, an interstellar comet was discovered as it passed through the Solar System (2I/Borisov). On the basis of initial imaging observations, 2I/Borisov seemed to be similar to ordinary Solar System comets^1,2-an unexpected characteristic given the multiple peculiarities of the only known previous interstellar visitor, 1I/'Oumuamua^3-6. Spectroscopic investigations of 2I/Borisov identified the familiar cometary emissions from CN (refs. ^7-9), C₂ (ref. ¹⁰), O I (ref. ¹¹), NH₂ (ref. ¹²), OH (ref. ¹³), HCN (ref. ¹⁴) and CO (refs. ^14,15), revealing a composition similar to that of carbon monoxide-rich Solar System comets. At temperatures greater than 700 kelvin, comets also show metallic vapours that are produced by the sublimation of metal-rich dust grains¹⁶. Observation of gaseous metals had until very recently¹⁷ been limited to bright sunskirting and sungrazing comets^18-20 and giant star-plunging exocomets²¹. Here we report spectroscopic observations of atomic nickel vapour in the cold coma of 2I/Borisov at a heliocentric distance of 2.322 astronomical units-equivalent to an equilibrium temperature of 180 kelvin. Nickel in 2I/Borisov seems to originate from a short-lived nickel-containing molecule with a lifetime of [Formula: see text] seconds at 1 astronomical unit and is produced at a rate of 0.9 ± 0.3 × 10²² atoms per second, or 0.002 per cent relative to OH and 0.3 per cent relative to CN. The detection of gas-phase nickel in the coma of 2I/Borisov is in line with the recent identification of this atom-as well as iron-in the cold comae of Solar System comets¹⁷.

Nightside condensation of iron in an ultrahot giant exoplanet

Ultra-hot giant exoplanets receive thousands of times Earth’s insolation^1,2. Their high-temperature atmospheres (>2,000 K) are ideal laboratories for studying extreme planetary climates and chemistry^3–5. Daysides are predicted to be cloud-free, dominated by atomic species⁶ and substantially hotter than nightsides^5,7,8. Atoms are expected to recombine into molecules over the nightside⁹, resulting in different day-night chemistry. While metallic elements and a large temperature contrast have been observed^10–14, no chemical gradient has been measured across the surface of such an exoplanet. Different atmospheric chemistry between the day-to-night (“evening”) and night-to-day (“morning”) terminators could, however, be revealed as an asymmetric absorption signature during transit^4,7,15. Here, we report the detection of an asymmetric atmospheric signature in the ultra-hot exoplanet WASP-76b. We spectrally and temporally resolve this signature thanks to the combination of high-dispersion spectroscopy with a large photon-collecting area. The absorption signal, attributed to neutral iron, is blueshifted by −11±0.7 km s^-1 on the trailing limb, which can be explained by a combination of planetary rotation and wind blowing from the hot dayside¹⁶. In contrast, no signal arises from the nightside close to the morning terminator, showing that atomic iron is not absorbing starlight there. Iron must thus condense during its journey across the nightside.

Lightning and charge processes in brown dwarf and exoplanet atmospheres

The study of the composition of brown dwarf atmospheres helped to understand their formation and evolution. Similarly, the study of exoplanet atmospheres is expected to constrain their formation and evolutionary states. We use results from three-dimensional simulations, kinetic cloud formation and kinetic ion-neutral chemistry to investigate ionization processes that will affect their atmosphere chemistry: the dayside of super-hot Jupiters is dominated by atomic hydrogen, and not H₂O. Such planetary atmospheres exhibit a substantial degree of thermal ionization and clouds only form on the nightside where lightning leaves chemical tracers (e.g. HCN) for possibly long enough to be detectable. External radiation may cause exoplanets to be enshrouded in a shell of highly ionized, H₃⁺-forming gas and a weather-driven aurora may emerge. Brown dwarfs enable us to study the role of electron beams for the emergence of an extrasolar, weather system-driven aurora-like chemistry, and the effect of strong magnetic fields on cold atmospheric gases. Electron beams trigger the formation of H₃⁺ in the upper atmosphere of a brown dwarf (e.g. LSR-J1835), which may react with it to form hydronium, H₃O⁺, as a longer lived chemical tracer. Brown dwarfs and super-hot gas giants may be excellent candidates to search for H₃O⁺ as an H₃⁺ product. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Advances in hydrogen molecular ions: H₃⁺, H₅⁺ and beyond'.