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Tábara LC, Burr SP, Frison M, Chowdhury SR, Paupe V, Nie Y, Johnson M, Villar-Azpillaga J, Viegas F, Segawa M, Anand H, Petkevicius K, Chinnery PF, Prudent J. MTFP1 controls mitochondrial fusion to regulate inner membrane quality control and maintain mtDNA levels. Cell 2024; 187:3619-3637.e27. [PMID: 38851188 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dynamics play a critical role in cell fate decisions and in controlling mtDNA levels and distribution. However, the molecular mechanisms linking mitochondrial membrane remodeling and quality control to mtDNA copy number (CN) regulation remain elusive. Here, we demonstrate that the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) protein mitochondrial fission process 1 (MTFP1) negatively regulates IMM fusion. Moreover, manipulation of mitochondrial fusion through the regulation of MTFP1 levels results in mtDNA CN modulation. Mechanistically, we found that MTFP1 inhibits mitochondrial fusion to isolate and exclude damaged IMM subdomains from the rest of the network. Subsequently, peripheral fission ensures their segregation into small MTFP1-enriched mitochondria (SMEM) that are targeted for degradation in an autophagic-dependent manner. Remarkably, MTFP1-dependent IMM quality control is essential for basal nucleoid recycling and therefore to maintain adequate mtDNA levels within the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Carlos Tábara
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK.
| | - Stephen P Burr
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Michele Frison
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Suvagata R Chowdhury
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Vincent Paupe
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Yu Nie
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Mark Johnson
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Jara Villar-Azpillaga
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Filipa Viegas
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Mayuko Segawa
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Hanish Anand
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Kasparas Petkevicius
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Patrick F Chinnery
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Julien Prudent
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK.
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2
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Zuccaro KE, Abriata LA, Pinto Meireles FT, Moss FR, Frost A, Dal Peraro M, Aydin H. Cardiolipin clustering promotes mitochondrial membrane dynamics. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.21.595226. [PMID: 38826344 PMCID: PMC11142133 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.21.595226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Cardiolipin (CL) is a mitochondria-specific phospholipid that forms heterotypic interactions with membrane-shaping proteins and regulates the dynamic remodeling and function of mitochondria. However, the precise mechanisms through which CL influences mitochondrial morphology are not well understood. In this study, employing molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, we observed CL localize near the membrane-binding sites of the mitochondrial fusion protein Optic Atrophy 1 (OPA1). To validate these findings experimentally, we developed a bromine-labeled CL probe to enhance cryoEM contrast and characterize the structure of OPA1 assemblies bound to the CL-brominated lipid bilayers. Our images provide direct evidence of interactions between CL and two conserved motifs within the paddle domain (PD) of OPA1, which control membrane-shaping mechanisms. We further observed a decrease in membrane remodeling activity for OPA1 in lipid compositions with increasing concentrations of monolyso-cardiolipin (MLCL). Suggesting that the partial replacement of CL by MLCL accumulation, as observed in Barth syndrome-associated mutations of the tafazzin phospholipid transacylase, compromises the stability of protein-membrane interactions. Our analyses provide insights into how biological membranes regulate the mechanisms governing mitochondrial homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly E. Zuccaro
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Luciano A. Abriata
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Protein Production and Structure Core Facility, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fernando Teixeira Pinto Meireles
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Frank R. Moss
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Adam Frost
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Altos Labs, Bay Area Institute of Science, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Matteo Dal Peraro
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Halil Aydin
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
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3
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VanPortfliet JJ, Chute C, Lei Y, Shutt TE, West AP. Mitochondrial DNA release and sensing in innate immune responses. Hum Mol Genet 2024; 33:R80-R91. [PMID: 38779772 PMCID: PMC11112387 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddae031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are pleiotropic organelles central to an array of cellular pathways including metabolism, signal transduction, and programmed cell death. Mitochondria are also key drivers of mammalian immune responses, functioning as scaffolds for innate immune signaling, governing metabolic switches required for immune cell activation, and releasing agonists that promote inflammation. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a potent immunostimulatory agonist, triggering pro-inflammatory and type I interferon responses in a host of mammalian cell types. Here we review recent advances in how mtDNA is detected by nucleic acid sensors of the innate immune system upon release into the cytoplasm and extracellular space. We also discuss how the interplay between mtDNA release and sensing impacts cellular innate immune endpoints relevant to health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordyn J VanPortfliet
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, United States
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX 77807, United States
| | - Cole Chute
- Departments of Medical Genetics and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Yuanjiu Lei
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, United States
| | - Timothy E Shutt
- Departments of Medical Genetics and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - A Phillip West
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609, United States
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, School of Medicine, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX 77807, United States
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4
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He Y, He T, Li H, Chen W, Zhong B, Wu Y, Chen R, Hu Y, Ma H, Wu B, Hu W, Han Z. Deciphering mitochondrial dysfunction: Pathophysiological mechanisms in vascular cognitive impairment. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 174:116428. [PMID: 38599056 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) encompasses a range of cognitive deficits arising from vascular pathology. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying VCI remain incompletely understood; however, chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) is widely acknowledged as a principal pathological contributor. Mitochondria, crucial for cellular energy production and intracellular signaling, can lead to numerous neurological impairments when dysfunctional. Recent evidence indicates that mitochondrial dysfunction-marked by oxidative stress, disturbed calcium homeostasis, compromised mitophagy, and anomalies in mitochondrial dynamics-plays a pivotal role in VCI pathogenesis. This review offers a detailed examination of the latest insights into mitochondrial dysfunction within the VCI context, focusing on both the origins and consequences of compromised mitochondrial health. It aims to lay a robust scientific groundwork for guiding the development and refinement of mitochondrial-targeted interventions for VCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyao He
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Tiantian He
- Sichuan Academy of Chinese Medicine Sciences, China
| | - Hongpei Li
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Biying Zhong
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Yue Wu
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Runming Chen
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuli Hu
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Huaping Ma
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Bin Wu
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Wenyue Hu
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China.
| | - Zhenyun Han
- Shenzhen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China.
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5
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Ma X, Niu M, Ni HM, Ding WX. Mitochondrial dynamics, quality control, and mtDNA in alcohol-associated liver disease and liver cancer. Hepatology 2024:01515467-990000000-00861. [PMID: 38683546 DOI: 10.1097/hep.0000000000000910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Mitochondria are intracellular organelles responsible for energy production, glucose and lipid metabolism, cell death, cell proliferation, and innate immune response. Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that constantly undergo fission, fusion, and intracellular trafficking, as well as degradation and biogenesis. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been implicated in a variety of chronic liver diseases including alcohol-associated liver disease, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis, and HCC. In this review, we provide a detailed overview of mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy, and mitochondrial DNA-mediated innate immune response, and how dysregulation of these mitochondrial processes affects the pathogenesis of alcohol-associated liver disease and HCC. Mitochondrial dynamics and mitochondrial DNA-mediated innate immune response may thereby represent an attractive therapeutic target for ameliorating alcohol-associated liver disease and alcohol-associated HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Ma
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Mengwei Niu
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Hong-Min Ni
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Wen-Xing Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Mobility, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
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6
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Horten P, Song K, Garlich J, Hardt R, Colina-Tenorio L, Horvath SE, Schulte U, Fakler B, van der Laan M, Becker T, Stuart RA, Pfanner N, Rampelt H. Identification of MIMAS, a multifunctional mega-assembly integrating metabolic and respiratory biogenesis factors of mitochondria. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113772. [PMID: 38393949 PMCID: PMC11010658 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.113772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrial inner membrane plays central roles in bioenergetics and metabolism and contains several established membrane protein complexes. Here, we report the identification of a mega-complex of the inner membrane, termed mitochondrial multifunctional assembly (MIMAS). Its large size of 3 MDa explains why MIMAS has escaped detection in the analysis of mitochondria so far. MIMAS combines proteins of diverse functions from respiratory chain assembly to metabolite transport, dehydrogenases, and lipid biosynthesis but not the large established supercomplexes of the respiratory chain, ATP synthase, or prohibitin scaffold. MIMAS integrity depends on the non-bilayer phospholipid phosphatidylethanolamine, in contrast to respiratory supercomplexes whose stability depends on cardiolipin. Our findings suggest that MIMAS forms a protein-lipid mega-assembly in the mitochondrial inner membrane that integrates respiratory biogenesis and metabolic processes in a multifunctional platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Horten
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, ZBMZ, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Kuo Song
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, ZBMZ, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Joshua Garlich
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - Robert Hardt
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Lilia Colina-Tenorio
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, ZBMZ, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Susanne E Horvath
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, ZBMZ, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Uwe Schulte
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; CIBSS Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Bernd Fakler
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; CIBSS Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Martin van der Laan
- Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Molecular Signaling, PZMS, Faculty of Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Becker
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Rosemary A Stuart
- Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - Nikolaus Pfanner
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, ZBMZ, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; CIBSS Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; BIOSS Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Heike Rampelt
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, ZBMZ, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; CIBSS Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
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7
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Fry MY, Navarro PP, Hakim P, Ananda VY, Qin X, Landoni JC, Rath S, Inde Z, Lugo CM, Luce BE, Ge Y, McDonald JL, Ali I, Ha LL, Kleinstiver BP, Chan DC, Sarosiek KA, Chao LH. In situ architecture of Opa1-dependent mitochondrial cristae remodeling. EMBO J 2024; 43:391-413. [PMID: 38225406 PMCID: PMC10897290 DOI: 10.1038/s44318-024-00027-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Cristae membrane state plays a central role in regulating mitochondrial function and cellular metabolism. The protein Optic atrophy 1 (Opa1) is an important crista remodeler that exists as two forms in the mitochondrion, a membrane-anchored long form (l-Opa1) and a processed short form (s-Opa1). The mechanisms for how Opa1 influences cristae shape have remained unclear due to lack of native three-dimensional views of cristae. We perform in situ cryo-electron tomography of cryo-focused ion beam milled mouse embryonic fibroblasts with defined Opa1 states to understand how each form of Opa1 influences cristae architecture. In our tomograms, we observe a variety of cristae shapes with distinct trends dependent on s-Opa1:l-Opa1 balance. Increased l-Opa1 levels promote cristae stacking and elongated mitochondria, while increased s-Opa1 levels correlated with irregular cristae packing and round mitochondria shape. Functional assays indicate a role for l-Opa1 in wild-type apoptotic and calcium handling responses, and show a compromised respiratory function under Opa1 imbalance. In summary, we provide three-dimensional visualization of cristae architecture to reveal relationships between mitochondrial ultrastructure and cellular function dependent on Opa1-mediated membrane remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Y Fry
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Paula P Navarro
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Pusparanee Hakim
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Virly Y Ananda
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xingping Qin
- John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences (MIPS) Program, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
- Lab of Systems Pharmacology, Harvard Program in Therapeutic Science, Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Juan C Landoni
- Institute of Physics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sneha Rath
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zintis Inde
- John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences (MIPS) Program, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
- Lab of Systems Pharmacology, Harvard Program in Therapeutic Science, Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Bridget E Luce
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yifan Ge
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Interdisciplinary Research Center of Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Julie L McDonald
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Ilzat Ali
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Leillani L Ha
- Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Benjamin P Kleinstiver
- Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David C Chan
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Kristopher A Sarosiek
- John B. Little Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
- Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences (MIPS) Program, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
- Lab of Systems Pharmacology, Harvard Program in Therapeutic Science, Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Luke H Chao
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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