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Monogenic Parkinson’s Disease: Genotype, Phenotype, Pathophysiology, and Genetic Testing. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13030471. [PMID: 35328025 PMCID: PMC8950888 DOI: 10.3390/genes13030471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease may be caused by a single pathogenic variant (monogenic) in 5–10% of cases, but investigation of these disorders provides valuable pathophysiological insights. In this review, we discuss each genetic form with a focus on genotype, phenotype, pathophysiology, and the geographic and ethnic distribution. Well-established Parkinson’s disease genes include autosomal dominant forms (SNCA, LRRK2, and VPS35) and autosomal recessive forms (PRKN, PINK1 and DJ1). Furthermore, mutations in the GBA gene are a key risk factor for Parkinson’s disease, and there have been major developments for X-linked dystonia parkinsonism. Moreover, atypical or complex parkinsonism may be due to mutations in genes such as ATP13A2, DCTN1, DNAJC6, FBXO7, PLA2G6, and SYNJ1. Furthermore, numerous genes have recently been implicated in Parkinson’s disease, such as CHCHD2, LRP10, TMEM230, UQCRC1, and VPS13C. Additionally, we discuss the role of heterozygous mutations in autosomal recessive genes, the effect of having mutations in two Parkinson’s disease genes, the outcome of deep brain stimulation, and the role of genetic testing. We highlight that monogenic Parkinson’s disease is influenced by ethnicity and geographical differences, reinforcing the need for global efforts to pool large numbers of patients and identify novel candidate genes.
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Mahmood A, Shah AA, Umair M, Wu Y, Khan A. Recalling the pathology of Parkinson's disease; lacking exact figure of prevalence and genetic evidence in Asia with an alarming outcome: A time to step-up. Clin Genet 2021; 100:659-677. [PMID: 34195994 DOI: 10.1111/cge.14019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common and progressive neurodegenerative disease globally, with major symptoms like bradykinesia, impaired posture, and tremor. Several genetic and environmental factors have been identified but elucidating the main factors have been challenging due to the disease's complex nature. Diagnosis, prognosis, and management of such diseases are challenging and require effective targeted attention in developing countries. Recently, PD is growing rapidly in many crowded Asian countries as an alarming threat with inadequate knowledge of its prevalence, genetic architecture, and geographic distribution. This study gave an in-depth overview of the prevalence, incidence and genomic/genetics studies published so far in the Asian population. To the best of our knowledge, PD has increased significantly in several Asian countries, including China, South Korea, Japan, Thailand, and Israel over the past few years, requiring a greater level of care and attention. Genetic screening of families with PD at national levels and establishing an official database of PD cases are essential to get a comprehensive and conclusive view of the exact prevalence and genetic diversity of PD in the Asian population to properly manage and treat the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arif Mahmood
- Center for Medical Genetics and Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,Institute of Molecular Precision Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Abid Ali Shah
- Center for Medical Genetics and Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Muhammad Umair
- Medical Genomics Research Department, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center (KAIMRC), King Saud bin Abdul-Aziz University for Health Sciences, Ministry of National Guard-Health Affairs (MNGHA), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yiming Wu
- Center for Medical Genetics and Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Amjad Khan
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lakki Marwat, Lakki Marwat, Pakistan
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Lowry JL, Ryan ÉB, Esengul YT, Siddique N, Siddique T. Intricacies of aetiology in intrafamilial degenerative disease. Brain Commun 2020; 2:fcaa120. [PMID: 33134917 PMCID: PMC7585693 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcaa120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The genetic underpinnings of late-onset degenerative disease have typically been determined by screening families for the segregation of genetic variants with the disease trait in affected, but not unaffected, individuals. However, instances of intrafamilial etiological heterogeneity, where pathogenic variants in a culprit gene are not shared among all affected family members, continue to emerge and confound gene-discovery and genetic counselling efforts. Discordant intrafamilial cases lacking a mutation shared by other affected family members are described as disease phenocopies. This description often results in an over-simplified acceptance of an environmental cause of disease in the phenocopy cases, while the role of intrafamilial genetic heterogeneity, shared de novo mutations or epigenetic aberrations in such families is often ignored. On a related note, it is now evident that the same disease-associated variant can be present in individuals exhibiting clinically distinct phenotypes, thereby genetically uniting seemingly unrelated syndromes to form a spectrum of disease. Herein, we discuss the intricacies of determining complex degenerative disease aetiology and suggest alternative mechanisms of disease transmission that may account for the apparent missing heritability of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Lowry
- The Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Éanna B Ryan
- The Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.,Northwestern University Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Y Taylan Esengul
- The Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Nailah Siddique
- The Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Teepu Siddique
- The Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.,Northwestern University Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.,Department of Pathology Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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Bandres-Ciga S, Diez-Fairen M, Kim JJ, Singleton AB. Genetics of Parkinson's disease: An introspection of its journey towards precision medicine. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 137:104782. [PMID: 31991247 PMCID: PMC7064061 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.104782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A substantial proportion of risk for Parkinson's disease (PD) is driven by genetics. Progress in understanding the genetic basis of PD has been significant. So far, highly-penetrant rare genetic alterations in SNCA, LRRK2, VPS35, PRKN, PINK1, DJ-1 and GBA have been linked with typical familial PD and common genetic variability at 90 loci have been linked to risk for PD. In this review, we outline the journey thus far of PD genetics, highlighting how significant advances have improved our knowledge of the genetic basis of PD risk, onset and progression. Despite remarkable progress, our field has yet to unravel how genetic risk variants disrupt biological pathways and molecular networks underlying the pathobiology of the disease. We highlight that currently identified genetic risk factors only represent a fraction of the likely genetic risk for PD. Identifying the remaining genetic risk will require us to diversify our efforts, performing genetic studies across different ancestral groups. This work will inform us on the varied genetic basis of disease across populations and also aid in fine mapping discovered loci. If we are able to take this course, we foresee that genetic discoveries in PD will directly influence our ability to predict disease and aid in defining etiological subtypes, critical steps for the implementation of precision medicine for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Bandres-Ciga
- Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Granada (ibs.GRANADA), Granada 18016, Spain.
| | - Monica Diez-Fairen
- Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Fundació Docència i Recerca Mútua Terrassa and Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, University Hospital Mútua Terrassa, Terrassa 08221, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jonggeol Jeff Kim
- Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Andrew B Singleton
- Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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The genetic architecture of Parkinson's disease. Lancet Neurol 2019; 19:170-178. [PMID: 31521533 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(19)30287-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 543] [Impact Index Per Article: 108.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a complex neurodegenerative disorder for which both rare and common genetic variants contribute to disease risk, onset, and progression. Mutations in more than 20 genes have been associated with the disease, most of which are highly penetrant and often cause early onset or atypical symptoms. Although our understanding of the genetic basis of Parkinson's disease has advanced considerably, much remains to be done. Further disease-related common genetic variability remains to be identified and the work in identifying rare risk alleles has only just begun. To date, genome-wide association studies have identified 90 independent risk-associated variants. However, most of them have been identified in patients of European ancestry and we know relatively little of the genetics of Parkinson's disease in other populations. We have a limited understanding of the biological functions of the risk alleles that have been identified, although Parkinson's disease risk variants appear to be in close proximity to known Parkinson's disease genes and lysosomal-related genes. In the past decade, multiple efforts have been made to investigate the genetic architecture of Parkinson's disease, and emerging technologies, such as machine learning, single-cell RNA sequencing, and high-throughput screens, will improve our understanding of genetic risk.
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Follett J, Fox JD, Gustavsson EK, Kadgien C, Munsie LN, Cao LP, Tatarnikov I, Milnerwood AJ, Farrer MJ. DNAJC13 p.Asn855Ser, implicated in familial parkinsonism, alters membrane dynamics of sorting nexin 1. Neurosci Lett 2019; 706:114-122. [PMID: 31082451 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.04.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
DNAJC13 (RME-8) is a core co-chaperone that facilitates membrane recycling and cargo sorting of endocytosed proteins. DNAJ/Hsp40 (heat shock protein 40) proteins are highly conserved throughout evolution and mediate the folding of nascent proteins, and the unfolding, refolding or degradation of misfolded proteins while assisting in associated-membrane translocation. DNAJC13 is one of five DNAJ 'C' class chaperone variants implicated in monogenic parkinsonism. Here we examine the effect of the DNAJC13 disease-linked mutation (p.Asn855Ser) on its interacting partners, focusing on sorting nexin 1 (SNX1) membrane dynamics in primary cortical neurons derived from a novel Dnajc13 p.Asn855Ser knock-in (DKI) mouse model. Dnajc13 p.Asn855Ser mutant and wild type protein expression were equivalent in mature heterozygous cultures (DIV21). While SNX1-positive puncta density, area, and WASH-retromer assembly were comparable between cultures derived from DKI and wild type littermates, the formation of SNX1-enriched tubules in DKI neuronal cultures was significantly increased. Thus, Dnajc13 p.Asn855Ser disrupts SNX1 membrane-tubulation and trafficking, analogous to results from RME-8 depletion studies. The data suggest the mutation confers a dominant-negative gain-of-function in RME-8. Implications for the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Follett
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
| | - Jesse D Fox
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
| | - Emil K Gustavsson
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada; Department of Neurology, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Chelsie Kadgien
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
| | - Lise N Munsie
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
| | - Li Ping Cao
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
| | - Igor Tatarnikov
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
| | - Austen J Milnerwood
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
| | - Matthew J Farrer
- Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
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