1
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Albers MD, Tiemann B, Kaynert JT, Pich A, Bakker H. Conserved cysteines prevent C-mannosylation of mucin Cys domains. FEBS J 2024; 291:3539-3552. [PMID: 38708720 DOI: 10.1111/febs.17152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Mucins are major components of the mucus. Besides the highly O-glycosylated tandem repeat domains, mucins contain Cys domains (CysDs). CysDs contain conserved disulfide-forming cysteine residues as well as a WxxW motif. Since this is the consensus sequence for tryptophan C-mannosylation, mucin CysDs have been suggested to be targets for C-mannosyltransferases, but this has never been directly shown. Here, we recombinantly expressed human mucin CysDs in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and analyzed the C-mannosylation status. Mass spectrometric analysis revealed that the putative C-mannose site is not or only barely C-mannosylated. However, mutation of the adjacent cysteine residues enabled C-mannosylation to occur. In contrast to mucin CysDs, the homologous CysD of human cartilage intermediate layer protein 1 (CILP1) lacks these cysteine residues preceding the WxxW motif. We show that CILP1 CysD is C-mannosylated, but introducing a cysteine at the -2 position causes this modification to be lost. We thus conclude that the presence of cysteine residues prevents the modification of the WxxW motif in CysDs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Birgit Tiemann
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Pich
- Research Core Unit Proteomics and Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, Germany
| | - Hans Bakker
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Germany
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2
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Povolo L, Tian W, Vakhrushev SY, Halim A. Global View of Domain-Specific O-Linked Mannose Glycosylation in Glycoengineered Cells. Mol Cell Proteomics 2024; 23:100796. [PMID: 38851451 PMCID: PMC11292533 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2024.100796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Protein O-linked mannose (O-Man) glycosylation is an evolutionary conserved posttranslational modification that fulfills important biological roles during embryonic development. Three nonredundant enzyme families, POMT1/POMT2, TMTC1-4, and TMEM260, selectively coordinate the initiation of protein O-Man glycosylation on distinct classes of transmembrane proteins, including α-dystroglycan, cadherins, and plexin receptors. However, a systematic investigation of their substrate specificities is lacking, in part due to the ubiquitous expression of O-Man glycosyltransferases in cells, which precludes analysis of pathway-specific O-Man glycosylation on a proteome-wide scale. Here, we apply a targeted workflow for membrane glycoproteomics across five human cell lines to extensively map O-Man substrates and genetically deconstruct O-Man initiation by individual and combinatorial knockout of O-Man glycosyltransferase genes. We established a human cell library for the analysis of substrate specificities of individual O-Man initiation pathways by quantitative glycoproteomics. Our results identify 180 O-Man glycoproteins, demonstrate new protein targets for the POMT1/POMT2 pathway, and show that TMTC1-4 and TMEM260 pathways widely target distinct Ig-like protein domains of plasma membrane proteins involved in cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. The identification of O-Man on Ig-like folds adds further knowledge on the emerging concept of domain-specific O-Man glycosylation which opens for functional studies of O-Man-glycosylated adhesion molecules and receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Povolo
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Weihua Tian
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Sergey Y Vakhrushev
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Adnan Halim
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.
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3
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Tian Y, Ma S, Wen L. Towards chemoenzymatic labeling strategies for profiling protein glycosylation. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2024; 80:102460. [PMID: 38678979 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2024.102460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
Protein glycosylation is one of the most common and important post-translational modifications of proteins involved in regulating glycoprotein functions. The chemoenzymatic glycan labeling strategy allows rapid, efficient, and selective interrogation of glycoproteins. Glycoproteomics identifies protein glycosylation events at a large scale, providing information such as peptide sequences, glycan structures, and glycosylated sites. This review discusses the recent development of chemoenzymatic labeling strategies for glycoprotein analysis, mainly including glycoprotein and glycosite profiling. Furthermore, we highlight the chemoenzymatic enrichment approaches in mass spectrometry analysis for three classes of glycan modifications, including N-glycosylation, O-GlcNAcylation, and mucin-type O-glycosylation. Finally, we highlight the emerging trends in new tools and cutting-edge technologies available for glycoproteomic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinping Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research and State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Carbohydrate-Based Drug Research Center, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Shengzhou Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research and State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Carbohydrate-Based Drug Research Center, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Liuqing Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research and State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Carbohydrate-Based Drug Research Center, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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4
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De Jesus IS, Vélez JAC, Pissinati EF, Correia JTM, Rivera DG, Paixao MW. Recent Advances in Photoinduced Modification of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins. CHEM REC 2024; 24:e202300322. [PMID: 38279622 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202300322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
The chemical modification of biopolymers like peptides and proteins is a key technology to access vaccines and pharmaceuticals. Similarly, the tunable derivatization of individual amino acids is important as they are key building blocks of biomolecules, bioactive natural products, synthetic polymers, and innovative materials. The high diversity of functional groups present in amino acid-based molecules represents a significant challenge for their selective derivatization Recently, visible light-mediated transformations have emerged as a powerful strategy for achieving chemoselective biomolecule modification. This technique offers numerous advantages over other methods, including a higher selectivity, mild reaction conditions and high functional-group tolerance. This review provides an overview of the most recent methods covering the photoinduced modification for single amino acids and site-selective functionalization in peptides and proteins under mild and even biocompatible conditions. Future challenges and perspectives are discussed beyond the diverse types of photocatalytic transformations that are currently available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iva S De Jesus
- Laboratory for Sustainable Organic Synthesis and Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo, 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Jeimy A C Vélez
- Laboratory for Sustainable Organic Synthesis and Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo, 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Emanuele F Pissinati
- Laboratory for Sustainable Organic Synthesis and Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo, 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Jose Tiago M Correia
- Laboratory for Sustainable Organic Synthesis and Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo, 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Daniel G Rivera
- Laboratory of Synthetic and Biomolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Havana Zapata & G, Havana, 10400, Cuba
| | - Márcio W Paixao
- Laboratory for Sustainable Organic Synthesis and Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos - UFSCar, São Carlos, São Paulo, 13565-905, Brazil
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5
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Xie X, Moon PJ, Crossley SWM, Bischoff AJ, He D, Li G, Dao N, Gonzalez-Valero A, Reeves AG, McKenna JM, Elledge SK, Wells JA, Toste FD, Chang CJ. Oxidative cyclization reagents reveal tryptophan cation-π interactions. Nature 2024; 627:680-687. [PMID: 38448587 PMCID: PMC11198740 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07140-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Methods for selective covalent modification of amino acids on proteins can enable a diverse array of applications, spanning probes and modulators of protein function to proteomics1-3. Owing to their high nucleophilicity, cysteine and lysine residues are the most common points of attachment for protein bioconjugation chemistry through acid-base reactivity3,4. Here we report a redox-based strategy for bioconjugation of tryptophan, the rarest amino acid, using oxaziridine reagents that mimic oxidative cyclization reactions in indole-based alkaloid biosynthetic pathways to achieve highly efficient and specific tryptophan labelling. We establish the broad use of this method, termed tryptophan chemical ligation by cyclization (Trp-CLiC), for selectively appending payloads to tryptophan residues on peptides and proteins with reaction rates that rival traditional click reactions and enabling global profiling of hyper-reactive tryptophan sites across whole proteomes. Notably, these reagents reveal a systematic map of tryptophan residues that participate in cation-π interactions, including functional sites that can regulate protein-mediated phase-separation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Xie
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Patrick J Moon
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Steven W M Crossley
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Amanda J Bischoff
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Dan He
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Gen Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Nam Dao
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Audrey G Reeves
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Susanna K Elledge
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - James A Wells
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - F Dean Toste
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | - Christopher J Chang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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6
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Gillmann KM, Temme JS, Marglous S, Brown CE, Gildersleeve JC. Anti-glycan monoclonal antibodies: Basic research and clinical applications. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2023; 74:102281. [PMID: 36905763 PMCID: PMC10732169 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.102281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Anti-glycan monoclonal antibodies have important applications in human health and basic research. Therapeutic antibodies that recognize cancer- or pathogen-associated glycans have been investigated in numerous clinical trials, resulting in two FDA-approved biopharmaceuticals. Anti-glycan antibodies are also utilized to diagnose, prognosticate, and monitor disease progression, as well as to study the biological roles and expression of glycans. High-quality anti-glycan mAbs are still in limited supply, highlighting the need for new technologies for anti-glycan antibody discovery. This review discusses anti-glycan monoclonal antibodies with applications to basic research, diagnostics, and therapeutics, focusing on recent advances in mAbs targeting cancer- and infectious disease-associated glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara M Gillmann
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - J Sebastian Temme
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Samantha Marglous
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Claire E Brown
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA
| | - Jeffrey C Gildersleeve
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD, 21702, USA.
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7
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Bloch JS, John A, Mao R, Mukherjee S, Boilevin J, Irobalieva RN, Darbre T, Scott NE, Reymond JL, Kossiakoff AA, Goddard-Borger ED, Locher KP. Structure, sequon recognition and mechanism of tryptophan C-mannosyltransferase. Nat Chem Biol 2023; 19:575-584. [PMID: 36604564 PMCID: PMC10154233 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01219-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
C-linked glycosylation is essential for the trafficking, folding and function of secretory and transmembrane proteins involved in cellular communication processes. The tryptophan C-mannosyltransferase (CMT) enzymes that install the modification attach a mannose to the first tryptophan of WxxW/C sequons in nascent polypeptide chains by an unknown mechanism. Here, we report cryogenic-electron microscopy structures of Caenorhabditis elegans CMT in four key states: apo, acceptor peptide-bound, donor-substrate analog-bound and as a trapped ternary complex with both peptide and a donor-substrate mimic bound. The structures indicate how the C-mannosylation sequon is recognized by this CMT and its paralogs, and how sequon binding triggers conformational activation of the donor substrate: a process relevant to all glycosyltransferase C superfamily enzymes. Our structural data further indicate that the CMTs adopt an unprecedented electrophilic aromatic substitution mechanism to enable the C-glycosylation of proteins. These results afford opportunities for understanding human disease and therapeutic targeting of specific CMT paralogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joël S Bloch
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology and Biophysics and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alan John
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Runyu Mao
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Somnath Mukherjee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jérémy Boilevin
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Tamis Darbre
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Nichollas E Scott
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jean-Louis Reymond
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anthony A Kossiakoff
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Ethan D Goddard-Borger
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Kaspar P Locher
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
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8
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Nishitsuji K, Ikezaki M, Manabe S, Ihara Y. Functions of Protein <i>C</i>-Mannosylation in Physiology and Pathology. TRENDS GLYCOSCI GLYC 2023. [DOI: 10.4052/tigg.2218.1j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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9
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Nishitsuji K, Ikezaki M, Manabe S, Ihara Y. Functions of Protein <i>C</i>-Mannosylation in Physiology and Pathology. TRENDS GLYCOSCI GLYC 2023. [DOI: 10.4052/tigg.2218.1e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2023]
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10
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Piovesana S, Cavaliere C, Cerrato A, Laganà A, Montone CM, Capriotti AL. Recent trends in glycoproteomics by characterization of intact glycopeptides. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023:10.1007/s00216-023-04592-z. [PMID: 36811677 PMCID: PMC10328862 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04592-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
This trends article provides an overview of the state of the art in the analysis of intact glycopeptides by proteomics technologies based on LC-MS analysis. A brief description of the main techniques used at the different steps of the analytical workflow is provided, giving special attention to the most recent developments. The topics discussed include the need for dedicated sample preparation for intact glycopeptide purification from complex biological matrices. This section covers the common approaches with a special description of new materials and innovative reversible chemical derivatization strategies, specifically devised for intact glycopeptide analysis or dual enrichment of glycosylation and other post-translational modifications. The approaches are described for the characterization of intact glycopeptide structures by LC-MS and data analysis by bioinformatics for spectra annotation. The last section covers the open challenges in the field of intact glycopeptide analysis. These challenges include the need of a detailed description of the glycopeptide isomerism, the issues with quantitative analysis, and the lack of analytical methods for the large-scale characterization of glycosylation types that remain poorly characterized, such as C-mannosylation and tyrosine O-glycosylation. This bird's-eye view article provides both a state of the art in the field of intact glycopeptide analysis and open challenges to prompt future research on the topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susy Piovesana
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza Università Di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Cavaliere
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza Università Di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Cerrato
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza Università Di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza Università Di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Carmela Maria Montone
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza Università Di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza Università Di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
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11
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John A, M Bader S, Madiedo Soler N, Wiradiputri K, Tichkule S, Smyth ST, Ralph SA, Jex AR, Scott NE, Tonkin CJ, Goddard-Borger ED. Conservation, abundance, glycosylation profile, and localization of the TSP protein family in Cryptosporidium parvum. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:103006. [PMID: 36775128 PMCID: PMC10034466 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.103006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum is a zoonotic apicomplexan parasite and a common cause of diarrheal disease worldwide. The development of vaccines to prevent or limit infection remains an important goal for tackling cryptosporidiosis. At present, the only approved vaccine against any apicomplexan parasite targets a conserved adhesin possessing a thrombospondin repeat domain. C. parvum possesses 12 orthologous thrombospondin repeat domain-containing proteins known as CpTSP1-12, though little is known about these potentially important antigens. Here, we explore the architecture and conservation of the CpTSP protein family, as well as their abundance at the protein level within the sporozoite stage of the life cycle. We examine the glycosylation states of these proteins using a combination of glycopeptide enrichment techniques to demonstrate that these proteins are modified with C-, O-, and N-linked glycans. Using expansion microscopy, and an antibody against the C-linked mannose that is unique to the CpTSP protein family within C. parvum, we show that these proteins are found both on the cell surface and in structures that resemble the secretory pathway of C. parvum sporozoites. Finally, we generated a polyclonal antibody against CpTSP1 to show that it is found at the cell surface and within micronemes, in a pattern reminiscent of other apicomplexan motility-associated adhesins, and is present both in sporozoites and meronts. This work sheds new light on an understudied family of C. parvum proteins that are likely to be important to both parasite biology and the development of vaccines against cryptosporidiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan John
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stefanie M Bader
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Niccolay Madiedo Soler
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kharizta Wiradiputri
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Swapnil Tichkule
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sean T Smyth
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stuart A Ralph
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Aaron R Jex
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nichollas E Scott
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Christopher J Tonkin
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Ethan D Goddard-Borger
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
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12
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Afzal U, Bilal M, Zubair M, Rasool N, Adnan Ali Shah S, Amiruddin Zakaria Z. Stereospecific/stereoselective Nickel catalyzed reductive cross-coupling: An efficient tool for the synthesis of biological active targeted molecules. JOURNAL OF SAUDI CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jscs.2022.101589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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13
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Tryptophan C-mannosylation is critical for Plasmodium falciparum transmission. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4400. [PMID: 35906227 PMCID: PMC9338275 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32076-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Tryptophan C-mannosylation stabilizes proteins bearing a thrombospondin repeat (TSR) domain in metazoans. Here we show that Plasmodium falciparum expresses a DPY19 tryptophan C-mannosyltransferase in the endoplasmic reticulum and that DPY19-deficiency abolishes C-glycosylation, destabilizes members of the TRAP adhesin family and inhibits transmission to mosquitoes. Imaging P. falciparum gametogenesis in its entirety in four dimensions using lattice light-sheet microscopy reveals defects in ΔDPY19 gametocyte egress and exflagellation. While egress is diminished, ΔDPY19 microgametes still fertilize macrogametes, forming ookinetes, but these are abrogated for mosquito infection. The gametogenesis defects correspond with destabilization of MTRAP, which we show is C-mannosylated in P. falciparum, and the ookinete defect is concordant with defective CTRP secretion on the ΔDPY19 background. Genetic complementation of DPY19 restores ookinete infectivity, sporozoite production and C-mannosylation activity. Therefore, tryptophan C-mannosylation by DPY19 ensures TSR protein quality control at two lifecycle stages for successful transmission of the human malaria parasite. Here, Lopaticki et al. show that Plasmodium falciparum expresses a Dpy19 C-mannosyltransferase in the endoplasmic reticulum that glycosylates TSR domains. Functional characterization shows that PfDpy19 plays a critical role in transmission through mosquitoes as PfDpy19-deficiency abolishes C-glycosylation and destabilizes proteins relevant for gametogenesis and oocyst formation.
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14
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Hütte HJ, Tiemann B, Shcherbakova A, Grote V, Hoffmann M, Povolo L, Lommel M, Strahl S, Vakhrushev SY, Rapp E, Buettner FFR, Halim A, Imberty A, Bakker H. A Bacterial Mannose Binding Lectin as a Tool for the Enrichment of C- and O-Mannosylated Peptides. Anal Chem 2022; 94:7329-7338. [PMID: 35549177 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c00742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry (MS) easily detects C-mannosylated peptides from purified proteins but not from complex biological samples. Enrichment of specific glycopeptides by lectin affinity prior to MS analysis has been widely applied to support glycopeptide identification but was until now not available for C-mannosylated peptides. Here, we used the α-mannose-specific Burkholderia cenocepacia lectin A (BC2L-A) and show that, in addition to its previously demonstrated high-mannose N-glycan binding capability, this lectin is able to retain C- and O-mannosylated peptides. Besides testing binding abilities to standard peptides, we applied BC2L-A affinity to enrich C-mannosylated peptides from complex samples of tryptic digests of HEK293 and MCF10A whole cell extracts, which led to the identification of novel C-mannosylation sites. In conclusion, BC2L-A enabled specific enrichment of C- and O-mannosylated peptides and might have superior properties over other mannose binding lectins for this purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann J Hütte
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Birgit Tiemann
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Shcherbakova
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Valerian Grote
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Sandtorstraße 1, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Marcus Hoffmann
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Sandtorstraße 1, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Lorenzo Povolo
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Mark Lommel
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Glycobiology, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 360, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sabine Strahl
- Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), Glycobiology, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 360, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sergey Y Vakhrushev
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Erdmann Rapp
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Sandtorstraße 1, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany.,glyXera GmbH, Brenneckestrasse 20, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Falk F R Buettner
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Adnan Halim
- Copenhagen Center for Glycomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Anne Imberty
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CERMAV, 601 rue de la chimie, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Hans Bakker
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
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15
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Ikezaki M, Nishitsuji K, Matsumura K, Manabe S, Shibukawa Y, Wada Y, Ito Y, Ihara Y. C-Mannosylated tryptophan-containing WSPW peptide binds to actinin-4 and alters E-cadherin subcellular localization in lung epithelial-like A549 cells. Biochimie 2021; 192:136-146. [PMID: 34673139 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2021.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The Trp-x-x-Trp (W-x-x-W) peptide motif, a consensus site for C-mannosylation, is the functional motif in cytokine type I receptors or thrombospondin type I repeat (TSR) superfamily proteins. W-x-x-W motifs are important for physiological and pathological functions of their parental proteins, but effects of C-mannosylation on protein functions remain to be elucidated. By using chemically synthesized WSPW peptides and C-mannosylated WSPW peptides (C-Man-WSPW), we herein investigated whether C-mannosylation of WSPW peptides confer additional biological functions to WSPW peptides. C-Man-WSPW peptide, but not non-mannosylated WSPW, reduced E-cadherin levels in A549 cells. Via peptide mass fingerprinting analysis, we identified actinin-4 as a C-Man-WSPW-binding protein in A549 cells. Actinin-4 partly co-localized with E-cadherin or β-catenin, despite no direct interaction between actinin-4 and E-cadherin. C-Man-WSPW reduced co-localization of E-cadherin and actinin-4; non-mannosylated WSPW had no effect on localization. In actinin-4-knockdown cells, E-cadherin was upregulated and demonstrated a punctate staining pattern in the cytoplasm, which suggests that actinin-4 regulated cell-surface E-cadherin localization. Thus, C-mannosylation of WSPW peptides is required for interaction with actinin-4 that subsequently alters expression and subcellular localization of E-cadherin and morphology of epithelial-like cells. Our results therefore suggest a regulatory role of C-mannosylation of the W-x-x-W motif in interactions between the motif and its binding partner and will thereby enhance understanding of protein C-mannosylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Midori Ikezaki
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Kazuchika Nishitsuji
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan.
| | - Ko Matsumura
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Shino Manabe
- Laboratory of Functional Molecule Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Department and Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Hoshi University, Tokyo, 142-8501, Japan; Research Center for Pharmaceutical Development, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Miyagi, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Yukinao Shibukawa
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Osaka Medical Center and Research Institute for Maternal and Child Health, Osaka, 594-1101, Japan
| | - Yoshinao Wada
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Osaka Medical Center and Research Institute for Maternal and Child Health, Osaka, 594-1101, Japan
| | - Yukishige Ito
- RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan; Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Osaka, 560-0043, Japan
| | - Yoshito Ihara
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan.
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16
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Minakata S, Manabe S, Inai Y, Ikezaki M, Nishitsuji K, Ito Y, Ihara Y. Protein C-Mannosylation and C-Mannosyl Tryptophan in Chemical Biology and Medicine. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26175258. [PMID: 34500691 PMCID: PMC8433626 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26175258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
C-Mannosylation is a post-translational modification of proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. Monomeric α-mannose is attached to specific Trp residues at the first Trp in the Trp-x-x-Trp/Cys (W-x-x-W/C) motif of substrate proteins, by the action of C-mannosyltransferases, DPY19-related gene products. The acceptor substrate proteins are included in the thrombospondin type I repeat (TSR) superfamily, cytokine receptor type I family, and others. Previous studies demonstrated that C-mannosylation plays critical roles in the folding, sorting, and/or secretion of substrate proteins. A C-mannosylation-defective gene mutation was identified in humans as the disease-associated variant affecting a C-mannosylation motif of W-x-x-W of ADAMTSL1, which suggests the involvement of defects in protein C-mannosylation in human diseases such as developmental glaucoma, myopia, and/or retinal defects. On the other hand, monomeric C-mannosyl Trp (C-Man-Trp), a deduced degradation product of C-mannosylated proteins, occurs in cells and extracellular fluids. Several studies showed that the level of C-Man-Trp is upregulated in blood of patients with renal dysfunction, suggesting that the metabolism of C-Man-Trp may be involved in human kidney diseases. Together, protein C-mannosylation is considered to play important roles in the biosynthesis and functions of substrate proteins, and the altered regulation of protein C-manosylation may be involved in the pathophysiology of human diseases. In this review, we consider the biochemical and biomedical knowledge of protein C-mannosylation and C-Man-Trp, and introduce recent studies concerning their significance in biology and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiho Minakata
- Department of Biochemistry, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, Wakayama 641-0012, Japan; (S.M.); (Y.I.); (M.I.); (K.N.)
| | - Shino Manabe
- Pharmaceutical Department, The Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Hoshi University, 2-4-41 Ebara, Shinagawa, Tokyo 142-8501, Japan;
- Research Center for Pharmaceutical Development, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science & Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8578, Japan
| | - Yoko Inai
- Department of Biochemistry, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, Wakayama 641-0012, Japan; (S.M.); (Y.I.); (M.I.); (K.N.)
| | - Midori Ikezaki
- Department of Biochemistry, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, Wakayama 641-0012, Japan; (S.M.); (Y.I.); (M.I.); (K.N.)
| | - Kazuchika Nishitsuji
- Department of Biochemistry, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, Wakayama 641-0012, Japan; (S.M.); (Y.I.); (M.I.); (K.N.)
| | - Yukishige Ito
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan;
- RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yoshito Ihara
- Department of Biochemistry, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, Wakayama 641-0012, Japan; (S.M.); (Y.I.); (M.I.); (K.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-73-441-0628
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17
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Mao R, Xi S, Shah S, Roy MJ, John A, Lingford JP, Gäde G, Scott NE, Goddard-Borger ED. Synthesis of C-Mannosylated Glycopeptides Enabled by Ni-Catalyzed Photoreductive Cross-Coupling Reactions. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:12699-12707. [PMID: 34346681 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c05567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The biological functions of tryptophan C-mannosylation are poorly understood, in part, due to a dearth of methods for preparing pure glycopeptides and glycoproteins with this modification. To address this issue, efficient and scalable methods are required for installing this protein modification. Here, we describe unique Ni-catalyzed cross-coupling conditions that utilize photocatalysis or a Hantzsch ester photoreductant to couple glycosyl halides with (hetero)aryl bromides, thereby enabling the α-C-mannosylation of 2-bromo-tryptophan, peptides thereof, and (hetero)aryl bromides more generally. We also report that 2-(α-d-mannopyranosyl)-L-tryptophan undergoes facile anomerization in the presence of acid: something that must be considered when preparing and handling peptides with this modification. These developments enabled the first automated solid-phase peptide syntheses of C-mannosylated glycopeptides, which we used to map the epitope of an antibody, as well as providing the first verified synthesis of Carmo-HrTH-I, a C-mannosylated insect hormone. To complement this approach, we also performed late-stage tryptophan C-mannosylation on a diverse array of peptides, demonstrating the broad scope and utility of this methodology for preparing glycopeptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runyu Mao
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Shiyi Xi
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Sayali Shah
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Michael J Roy
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Alan John
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - James P Lingford
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Gerd Gäde
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, RSA-7700 Rondebosch, South Africa
| | - Nichollas E Scott
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Ethan D Goddard-Borger
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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18
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Cirksena K, Hütte HJ, Shcherbakova A, Thumberger T, Sakson R, Weiss S, Jensen LR, Friedrich A, Todt D, Kuss AW, Ruppert T, Wittbrodt J, Bakker H, Buettner FFR. The C-Mannosylome of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Implies a Role for ADAMTS16 C-Mannosylation in Eye Development. Mol Cell Proteomics 2021; 20:100092. [PMID: 33975020 PMCID: PMC8256286 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2021.100092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
C-mannosylation is a modification of tryptophan residues with a single mannose and can affect protein folding, secretion, and/or function. To date, only a few proteins have been demonstrated to be C-mannosylated, and studies that globally assess protein C-mannosylation are scarce. To interrogate the C-mannosylome of human induced pluripotent stem cells, we compared the secretomes of CRISPR–Cas9 mutants lacking either the C-mannosyltransferase DPY19L1 or DPY19L3 to WT human induced pluripotent stem cells using MS-based quantitative proteomics. The secretion of numerous proteins was reduced in these mutants, including that of A Disintegrin And Metalloproteinase with ThromboSpondin Motifs 16 (ADAMTS16), an extracellular protease that was previously reported to be essential for optic fissure fusion in zebrafish eye development. To test the functional relevance of this observation, we targeted dpy19l1 or dpy19l3 in embryos of the Japanese rice fish medaka (Oryzias latipes) by CRISPR–Cas9. We observed that targeting of dpy19l3 partially caused defects in optic fissure fusion, called coloboma. We further showed in a cellular model that DPY19L1 and DPY19L3 mediate C-mannosylation of a recombinantly expressed thrombospondin type 1 repeat of ADAMTS16 and thereby support its secretion. Taken together, our findings imply that DPY19L3-mediated C-mannosylation is involved in eye development by assisting secretion of the extracellular protease ADAMTS16. TSR1 of ADAMTS16 can be C-mannosylated. Deletion of DPY19L1 or DPY19L3 in hiPSCs caused reduced secretion of ADAMTS16. Targeting of dpy19l3 in medaka occasionally led to coloboma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karsten Cirksena
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Hermann J Hütte
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Thomas Thumberger
- Centre for Organismal Studies Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Roman Sakson
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg (ZMBH), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Heidelberg, Germany; HBIGS, Heidelberg Biosciences International Graduate School, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; Leibniz-Institut für Analytische Wissenschaften-ISAS-e.V., Dortmund, Germany
| | - Stefan Weiss
- Human Molecular Genetics Group, Department of Functional Genomics, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Lars Riff Jensen
- Human Molecular Genetics Group, Department of Functional Genomics, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Alina Friedrich
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Daniel Todt
- Department for Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany; European Virus Bioinformatics Center (EVBC), Jena, Germany
| | - Andreas W Kuss
- Human Molecular Genetics Group, Department of Functional Genomics, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Thomas Ruppert
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg (ZMBH), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Joachim Wittbrodt
- Centre for Organismal Studies Heidelberg, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hans Bakker
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Falk F R Buettner
- Institute of Clinical Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.
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