1
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Lascaux P, Hoslett G, Tribble S, Trugenberger C, Antičević I, Otten C, Torrecilla I, Koukouravas S, Zhao Y, Yang H, Aljarbou F, Ruggiano A, Song W, Peron C, Deangeli G, Domingo E, Bancroft J, Carrique L, Johnson E, Vendrell I, Fischer R, Ng AWT, Ngeow J, D'Angiolella V, Raimundo N, Maughan T, Popović M, Milošević I, Ramadan K. TEX264 drives selective autophagy of DNA lesions to promote DNA repair and cell survival. Cell 2024; 187:5698-5718.e26. [PMID: 39265577 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 08/10/2024] [Indexed: 09/14/2024]
Abstract
DNA repair and autophagy are distinct biological processes vital for cell survival. Although autophagy helps maintain genome stability, there is no evidence of its direct role in the repair of DNA lesions. We discovered that lysosomes process topoisomerase 1 cleavage complexes (TOP1cc) DNA lesions in vertebrates. Selective degradation of TOP1cc by autophagy directs DNA damage repair and cell survival at clinically relevant doses of topoisomerase 1 inhibitors. TOP1cc are exported from the nucleus to lysosomes through a transient alteration of the nuclear envelope and independent of the proteasome. Mechanistically, the autophagy receptor TEX264 acts as a TOP1cc sensor at DNA replication forks, triggering TOP1cc processing by the p97 ATPase and mediating the delivery of TOP1cc to lysosomes in an MRE11-nuclease- and ATR-kinase-dependent manner. We found an evolutionarily conserved role for selective autophagy in DNA repair that enables cell survival, protects genome stability, and is clinically relevant for colorectal cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Lascaux
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Gwendoline Hoslett
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Sara Tribble
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Camilla Trugenberger
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Ivan Antičević
- DNA Damage Group, Laboratory for Molecular Ecotoxicology, Department for Marine and Environmental Research, Institute Ruđer Bošković, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Cecile Otten
- DNA Damage Group, Laboratory for Molecular Ecotoxicology, Department for Marine and Environmental Research, Institute Ruđer Bošković, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ignacio Torrecilla
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Stelios Koukouravas
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Yichen Zhao
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Hongbin Yang
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Ftoon Aljarbou
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Annamaria Ruggiano
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Wei Song
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Cristiano Peron
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Giulio Deangeli
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 2PY, UK
| | - Enric Domingo
- Department of Oncology, Medical Sciences Division, Old Road Campus Research Building, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - James Bancroft
- Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine (NDM), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Loïc Carrique
- Division of Structural Biology, Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine (NDM), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Errin Johnson
- Dunn School Bioimaging Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Iolanda Vendrell
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine (NDM), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Chinese Academy for Medical Sciences Oxford Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine (NDM), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Roman Fischer
- Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine (NDM), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK; Chinese Academy for Medical Sciences Oxford Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine (NDM), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - Alvin Wei Tian Ng
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKCMedicine), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921, Singapore
| | - Joanne Ngeow
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKCMedicine), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921, Singapore; Cancer Genetics Service, Division of Medical Oncology, National Cancer Centre Singapore, Singapore 169610, Singapore
| | - Vincenzo D'Angiolella
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK; Edinburgh Cancer Research, CRUK Scotland Centre, Institute of Genetics and Cancer, University of Edinburgh, EH4 2XU Edinburgh, UK
| | - Nuno Raimundo
- Penn State College of Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Hershey, PA 17033, USA; Multidisciplinary Institute for Aging, Center for Innovation in Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3000-370, Portugal
| | - Tim Maughan
- Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK
| | - Marta Popović
- DNA Damage Group, Laboratory for Molecular Ecotoxicology, Department for Marine and Environmental Research, Institute Ruđer Bošković, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ira Milošević
- Centre for Human Genetics, Nuffield Department of Medicine (NDM), University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK; Multidisciplinary Institute for Aging, Center for Innovation in Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3000-370, Portugal
| | - Kristijan Ramadan
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK; Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKCMedicine), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 636921, Singapore.
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2
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Bhola M, Abe K, Orozco P, Rahnamoun H, Avila-Lopez P, Taylor E, Muhammad N, Liu B, Patel P, Marko JF, Starner AC, He C, Van Nostrand EL, Mondragón A, Lauberth SM. RNA interacts with topoisomerase I to adjust DNA topology. Mol Cell 2024; 84:3192-3208.e11. [PMID: 39173639 PMCID: PMC11380577 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2024.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Topoisomerase I (TOP1) is an essential enzyme that relaxes DNA to prevent and dissipate torsional stress during transcription. However, the mechanisms underlying the regulation of TOP1 activity remain elusive. Using enhanced cross-linking and immunoprecipitation (eCLIP) and ultraviolet-cross-linked RNA immunoprecipitation followed by total RNA sequencing (UV-RIP-seq) in human colon cancer cells along with RNA electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs), biolayer interferometry (BLI), and in vitro RNA-binding assays, we identify TOP1 as an RNA-binding protein (RBP). We show that TOP1 directly binds RNA in vitro and in cells and that most RNAs bound by TOP1 are mRNAs. Using a TOP1 RNA-binding mutant and topoisomerase cleavage complex sequencing (TOP1cc-seq) to map TOP1 catalytic activity, we reveal that RNA opposes TOP1 activity as RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) commences transcription of active genes. We further demonstrate the inhibitory role of RNA in regulating TOP1 activity by employing DNA supercoiling assays and magnetic tweezers. These findings provide insight into the coordinated actions of RNA and TOP1 in regulating DNA topological stress intrinsic to RNAPII-dependent transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mannan Bhola
- Simpson Querrey Institute for Epigenetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Kouki Abe
- Simpson Querrey Institute for Epigenetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Paola Orozco
- Section of Molecular Biology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Homa Rahnamoun
- Section of Molecular Biology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Pedro Avila-Lopez
- Simpson Querrey Institute for Epigenetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Elijah Taylor
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208-3108, USA
| | - Nefertiti Muhammad
- Simpson Querrey Institute for Epigenetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Bei Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute for Biophysical Dynamics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Prachi Patel
- Simpson Querrey Institute for Epigenetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - John F Marko
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208-3108, USA
| | - Anne C Starner
- Verna & Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Pharmacology and Therapeutic Innovation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Chuan He
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute for Biophysical Dynamics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Eric L Van Nostrand
- Verna & Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Pharmacology and Therapeutic Innovation Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Alfonso Mondragón
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208-3108, USA
| | - Shannon M Lauberth
- Simpson Querrey Institute for Epigenetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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3
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Friedman MJ, Wagner T, Lee H, Rosenfeld MG, Oh S. Enhancer-promoter specificity in gene transcription: molecular mechanisms and disease associations. Exp Mol Med 2024; 56:772-787. [PMID: 38658702 PMCID: PMC11058250 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-024-01233-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Although often located at a distance from their target gene promoters, enhancers are the primary genomic determinants of temporal and spatial transcriptional specificity in metazoans. Since the discovery of the first enhancer element in simian virus 40, there has been substantial interest in unraveling the mechanism(s) by which enhancers communicate with their partner promoters to ensure proper gene expression. These research efforts have benefited considerably from the application of increasingly sophisticated sequencing- and imaging-based approaches in conjunction with innovative (epi)genome-editing technologies; however, despite various proposed models, the principles of enhancer-promoter interaction have still not been fully elucidated. In this review, we provide an overview of recent progress in the eukaryotic gene transcription field pertaining to enhancer-promoter specificity. A better understanding of the mechanistic basis of lineage- and context-dependent enhancer-promoter engagement, along with the continued identification of functional enhancers, will provide key insights into the spatiotemporal control of gene expression that can reveal therapeutic opportunities for a range of enhancer-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meyer J Friedman
- Department and School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Tobias Wagner
- Department and School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Haram Lee
- College of Pharmacy Korea University, 2511 Sejong-ro, Sejong, 30019, Republic of Korea
| | - Michael G Rosenfeld
- Department and School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| | - Soohwan Oh
- College of Pharmacy Korea University, 2511 Sejong-ro, Sejong, 30019, Republic of Korea.
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4
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Abugable AA, Antar S, El-Khamisy SF. Chromosomal single-strand break repair and neurological disease: Implications on transcription and emerging genomic tools. DNA Repair (Amst) 2024; 135:103629. [PMID: 38266593 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2024.103629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Cells are constantly exposed to various sources of DNA damage that pose a threat to their genomic integrity. One of the most common types of DNA breaks are single-strand breaks (SSBs). Mutations in the repair proteins that are important for repairing SSBs have been reported in several neurological disorders. While several tools have been utilised to investigate SSBs in cells, it was only through recent advances in genomics that we are now beginning to understand the architecture of the non-random distribution of SSBs and their impact on key cellular processes such as transcription and epigenetic remodelling. Here, we discuss our current understanding of the genome-wide distribution of SSBs, their link to neurological disorders and summarise recent technologies to investigate SSBs at the genomic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arwa A Abugable
- School of Biosciences, Firth Court, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; The healthy Lifespan and Neuroscience Institutes, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Sarah Antar
- School of Biosciences, Firth Court, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; The healthy Lifespan and Neuroscience Institutes, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Egypt
| | - Sherif F El-Khamisy
- School of Biosciences, Firth Court, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; The healthy Lifespan and Neuroscience Institutes, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; Institute of Cancer Therapeutics, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK.
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5
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Torrecilla I, Ruggiano A, Kiianitsa K, Aljarbou F, Lascaux P, Hoslett G, Song W, Maizels N, Ramadan K. Isolation and detection of DNA-protein crosslinks in mammalian cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2024; 52:525-547. [PMID: 38084926 PMCID: PMC10810220 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad1178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
DNA-protein crosslinks (DPCs) are toxic DNA lesions wherein a protein is covalently attached to DNA. If not rapidly repaired, DPCs create obstacles that disturb DNA replication, transcription and DNA damage repair, ultimately leading to genome instability. The persistence of DPCs is associated with premature ageing, cancer and neurodegeneration. In mammalian cells, the repair of DPCs mainly relies on the proteolytic activities of SPRTN and the 26S proteasome, complemented by other enzymes including TDP1/2 and the MRN complex, and many of the activities involved are essential, restricting genetic approaches. For many years, the study of DPC repair in mammalian cells was hindered by the lack of standardised assays, most notably assays that reliably quantified the proteins or proteolytic fragments covalently bound to DNA. Recent interest in the field has spurred the development of several biochemical methods for DPC analysis. Here, we critically analyse the latest techniques for DPC isolation and the benefits and drawbacks of each. We aim to assist researchers in selecting the most suitable isolation method for their experimental requirements and questions, and to facilitate the comparison of results across different laboratories using different approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Torrecilla
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Annamaria Ruggiano
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Kostantin Kiianitsa
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7350, USA
| | - Ftoon Aljarbou
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Pauline Lascaux
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Gwendoline Hoslett
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Wei Song
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Nancy Maizels
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7350, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7350, USA
| | - Kristijan Ramadan
- The MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Department of Oncology, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
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6
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Stracker TH, Osagie OI, Escorcia FE, Citrin DE. Exploiting the DNA Damage Response for Prostate Cancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 16:83. [PMID: 38201511 PMCID: PMC10777950 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16010083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancers that progress despite androgen deprivation develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer, a fatal disease with few treatment options. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of prostate cancer subtypes and alterations in the DNA damage response (DDR) that can predispose to the development of prostate cancer and affect its progression. We identify barriers to conventional treatments, such as radiotherapy, and discuss the development of new therapies, many of which target the DDR or take advantage of recurring genetic alterations in the DDR. We place this in the context of advances in understanding the genetic variation and immune landscape of CRPC that could help guide their use in future treatment strategies. Finally, we discuss several new and emerging agents that may advance the treatment of lethal disease, highlighting selected clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis H. Stracker
- Radiation Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (O.I.O.); (F.E.E.); (D.E.C.)
| | - Oloruntoba I. Osagie
- Radiation Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (O.I.O.); (F.E.E.); (D.E.C.)
| | - Freddy E. Escorcia
- Radiation Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (O.I.O.); (F.E.E.); (D.E.C.)
- Molecular Imaging Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Deborah E. Citrin
- Radiation Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (O.I.O.); (F.E.E.); (D.E.C.)
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Sun Z, Fan J, Dang Y, Zhao Y. Enhancer in cancer pathogenesis and treatment. Genet Mol Biol 2023; 46:e20220313. [PMID: 37548349 PMCID: PMC10405138 DOI: 10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2022-0313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Enhancers are essential cis-acting regulatory elements that determine cell identity and tumor progression. Enhancer function is dependent on the physical interaction between the enhancer and its target promoter inside its local chromatin environment. Enhancer reprogramming is an important mechanism in cancer pathogenesis and can be driven by both cis and trans factors. Super enhancers are acquired at oncogenes in numerous cancer types and represent potential targets for cancer treatment. BET and CDK inhibitors act through mechanisms of enhancer function and have shown promising results in therapy for various types of cancer. Genome editing is another way to reprogram enhancers in cancer treatment. The relationship between enhancers and cancer has been revised by several authors in the past few years, which mainly focuses on the mechanisms by which enhancers can impact cancer. Here, we emphasize SE's role in cancer pathogenesis and the new therapies involving epigenetic regulators (BETi and CDKi). We suggest that understanding mechanisms of activity would aid clinical success for these anti-cancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo Sun
- Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Weiyang District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.1 XinWang Rd, Weiyang District, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jinbo Fan
- Xi’an Medical University, Xi’an Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Microorganism and Tumor Immunity, Weiyang District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yixiong Dang
- Xi’an Medical University, School of Public Health, Weiyang District, Xi’an, 710021 Shaanxi, China
| | - Yufeng Zhao
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, No.1 XinWang Rd, Weiyang District, Shaanxi, China
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