1
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Darawshi O, Yassin O, Shmuel M, Wek RC, Mahdizadeh SJ, Eriksson LA, Hatzoglou M, Tirosh B. Phosphorylation of GCN2 by mTOR confers adaptation to conditions of hyper-mTOR activation under stress. J Biol Chem 2024:107575. [PMID: 39013537 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.107575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Adaptation to shortage in free amino acids (AA) is mediated by two pathways, the integrated stress response (ISR) and the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). In response to reduced levels, primarily of leucine or arginine, mTOR in its complex 1 configuration (mTORC1) is suppressed leading to a decrease in translation initiation and elongation. The eIF2α kinase general control nonderepressible 2 (GCN2) is activated by uncharged tRNAs, leading to induction of the ISR in response to a broader range of AA shortage. ISR confers a reduced translation initiation, while promoting the selective synthesis of stress proteins, such as ATF4. To efficiently adapt to AA starvation, the two pathways are cross-regulated at multiple levels. Here we identified a new mechanism of ISR/mTORC1 crosstalk that optimizes survival under AA starvation, when mTORC1 is forced to remain active. mTORC1 activation during acute AA shortage, augmented ATF4 expression in a GCN2-dependent manner. Under these conditions, enhanced GCN2 activity was not dependent on tRNA sensing, inferring a different activation mechanism. We identified a labile physical interaction between GCN2 and mTOR that results in a phosphorylation of GCN2 on serine 230 by mTOR, which promotes GCN2 activity. When examined under prolonged AA starvation, GCN2 phosphorylation by mTOR promoted survival. Our data unveils an adaptive mechanism to AA starvation, when mTORC1 evades inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Odai Darawshi
- The School of Pharmacy, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Olaya Yassin
- The School of Pharmacy, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Miri Shmuel
- The School of Pharmacy, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ronald C Wek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, ID, USA
| | - S Jalil Mahdizadeh
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Leif A Eriksson
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Maria Hatzoglou
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Boaz Tirosh
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
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2
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Lu HJ, Koju N, Sheng R. Mammalian integrated stress responses in stressed organelles and their functions. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2024; 45:1095-1114. [PMID: 38267546 PMCID: PMC11130345 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-023-01225-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The integrated stress response (ISR) triggered in response to various cellular stress enables mammalian cells to effectively cope with diverse stressful conditions while maintaining their normal functions. Four kinases (PERK, PKR, GCN2, and HRI) of ISR regulate ISR signaling and intracellular protein translation via mediating the phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 α (eIF2α) at Ser51. Early ISR creates an opportunity for cells to repair themselves and restore homeostasis. This effect, however, is reversed in the late stages of ISR. Currently, some studies have shown the non-negligible impact of ISR on diseases such as ischemic diseases, cognitive impairment, metabolic syndrome, cancer, vanishing white matter, etc. Hence, artificial regulation of ISR and its signaling with ISR modulators becomes a promising therapeutic strategy for relieving disease symptoms and improving clinical outcomes. Here, we provide an overview of the essential mechanisms of ISR and describe the ISR-related pathways in organelles including mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. Meanwhile, the regulatory effects of ISR modulators and their potential application in various diseases are also enumerated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Jun Lu
- Department of Pharmacology and Laboratory of Aging and Nervous Diseases, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Nirmala Koju
- Department of Pharmacology and Laboratory of Aging and Nervous Diseases, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Rui Sheng
- Department of Pharmacology and Laboratory of Aging and Nervous Diseases, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China.
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3
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He J, Chen Y, Zhong W, Jun L, Chen D, Cheng H, Mei W. Insufficient secretion of pancreatic FGF21 is the toxicological mechanism and therapeutic target of asparaginase-associated pancreatitis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2024; 485:116920. [PMID: 38582373 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2024.116920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Asparaginase-associated pancreatitis (AAP) is a severe and potentially life-threatening drug-induced pancreas targeted toxicity in the combined chemotherapy of acute lymphoblastic leukemia among children and adolescents. The toxicological mechanism of AAP is not yet clear, and there are no effective preventive and treatment measures available clinically. Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is a secretory hormone that regulates lipid, glucose, and energy metabolism balance. Acinar tissue is the main source of pancreatic FGF21 protein and plays an important role in maintaining pancreatic metabolic balance. In this study, we found that the decrease of FGF21 in pancreas is closely related to AAP. Pegaspargase (1 IU/g) induces widespread edema and inflammatory infiltration in the pancreas of rats/mice. The specific expression of FGF21 in the acinar tissue of AAP rats was significantly downregulated. Asparaginase caused dysregulation of the ATF4/ATF3/FGF21 axis in acinar tissue or cells, and thus mediated the decrease of FGF21. It greatly activated ATF3 in the acinar, which competed with ATF4 for the Fgf21 promoter, thereby inhibiting the expression of FGF21. Pharmacological replacement of FGF21 (1 mg/kg) or PERK inhibitors (GSK2656157, 25 mg/kg) can significantly mitigate the pancreatic tissue damage and reduce markers of inflammation associated with AAP, representing potential strategies for the prevention and treatment of AAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang He
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China; Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215000
| | - Yajing Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215000
| | - Wen Zhong
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215000
| | - Lu Jun
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215000
| | - Dong Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215000
| | - Hui Cheng
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China
| | - Wang Mei
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China; Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215000.
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4
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Liu T, Wen Z, Shao L, Cui Y, Tang X, Miao H, Shi J, Jiang L, Feng S, Zhao Y, Zhang H, Liang Q, Chen D, Zhang Y, Wang C. ATF4 knockdown in macrophage impairs glycolysis and mediates immune tolerance by targeting HK2 and HIF-1α ubiquitination in sepsis. Clin Immunol 2023; 254:109698. [PMID: 37481013 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2023.109698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/24/2023]
Abstract
Strengthened glycolysis is crucial for the macrophage pro-inflammatory response during sepsis. Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) plays an important role in regulating glucose and lipid metabolic homeostasis in hepatocytes and adipocytes. However, its immunometabolic role in macrophage during sepsis remains largely unknown. In the present study, we found that the expression of ATF4 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was increased and associated with glucose metabolism in septic patients. Atf4 knockdown specifically decreased LPS-induced spleen macrophages and serum pro-inflammatory cytokines levels in mice. Moreover, Atf4 knockdown partially blocked LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines, lactate accumulation and glycolytic capacity in RAW264.7. Mechanically, ATF4 binds to the promoter region of hexokinase II (HK2), and interacts with hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and stabilizes HIF-1α through ubiquitination modification in response to LPS. Furthermore, ATF4-HIF-1α-HK2-glycolysis axis launches pro-inflammatory response in macrophage depending on the activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Importantly, Atf4 overexpression improves the decreased level of pro-inflammatory cytokines and lactate secretion and HK2 expression in LPS-induced tolerant macrophages. In conclusion, we propose a novel function of ATF4 as a crucial glycolytic activator contributing to pro-inflammatory response and improving immune tolerant in macrophage involved in sepsis. So, ATF4 could be a potential new target for immunotherapy of sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiantian Liu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenliang Wen
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200025 Shanghai, China
| | - Lujing Shao
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China
| | - Yun Cui
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200062, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaomeng Tang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China
| | - Huijie Miao
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200062, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingyi Shi
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200062, Shanghai, China
| | - Linlin Jiang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Shuyun Feng
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China
| | - Yilin Zhao
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Qiming Liang
- Research Center of Translational Medicine, Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Dechang Chen
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200025 Shanghai, China..
| | - Yucai Zhang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200062, Shanghai, China.
| | - Chunxia Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Children's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Critical Care Translational Medicine, Institute of Pediatric Infection, Immunity, and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200062 Shanghai, China; Institute of Pediatric Critical Care, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200062, Shanghai, China.
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5
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Jonsson WO, Borowik AK, Pranay A, Kinter MT, Mirek ET, Levy JL, Snyder EM, Miller BF, Anthony TG. Kinetic proteomics identifies targeted changes in liver metabolism and the ribo-interactome by dietary sulfur amino acid restriction. GeroScience 2023; 45:2425-2441. [PMID: 36976488 PMCID: PMC10651627 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-023-00758-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Dietary sulfur amino acid restriction (SAAR) protects against diet-induced obesity, extends healthspan, and coincides with an overall reduction in hepatic protein synthesis. To explore the underpinnings of SAAR-induced slowed growth and its impact on liver metabolism and proteostasis, we resolved changes in hepatic mRNA and protein abundances and compared synthesis rates of individual liver proteins. To achieve this, adult male mice were provided deuterium-labeled drinking water while freely consuming either a regular-fat or high-fat diet that was SAA restricted. Livers from these mice and their respective dietary controls were used to conduct transcriptomic, proteomic, and kinetic proteomic analyses. We found that remodeling of the transcriptome by SAAR was largely agnostic to dietary fat content. Shared signatures included activation of the integrated stress response alongside alterations in metabolic processes impacting lipids, fatty acids, and amino acids. Changes to the proteome correlated poorly with the transcriptome, and yet, functional clustering of kinetic proteomic changes in the liver during SAAR revealed that the management of fatty acids and amino acids were altered to support central metabolism and redox balance. Dietary SAAR also strongly influenced the synthesis rates of ribosomal proteins and ribosome-interacting proteins regardless of dietary fat. Taken together, dietary SAAR alters the transcriptome and proteome in the liver to safely manage increased fatty acid flux and energy use and couples this with targeted changes in the ribo-interactome to support proteostasis and slowed growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- William O Jonsson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and the New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, 59 Dudley Road - Foran Hall, Room 166, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Agnieszka K Borowik
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Atul Pranay
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Michael T Kinter
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Emily T Mirek
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and the New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, 59 Dudley Road - Foran Hall, Room 166, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Jordan L Levy
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and the New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, 59 Dudley Road - Foran Hall, Room 166, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Snyder
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Benjamin F Miller
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Oklahoma City VA, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Tracy G Anthony
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and the New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, 59 Dudley Road - Foran Hall, Room 166, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
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6
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Wek RC, Anthony TG, Staschke KA. Surviving and Adapting to Stress: Translational Control and the Integrated Stress Response. Antioxid Redox Signal 2023; 39:351-373. [PMID: 36943285 PMCID: PMC10443206 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2022.0123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Organisms adapt to changing environments by engaging cellular stress response pathways that serve to restore proteostasis and enhance survival. A primary adaptive mechanism is the integrated stress response (ISR), which features phosphorylation of the α subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2). Four eIF2α kinases respond to different stresses, enabling cells to rapidly control translation to optimize management of resources and reprogram gene expression for stress adaptation. Phosphorylation of eIF2 blocks its guanine nucleotide exchange factor, eIF2B, thus lowering the levels of eIF2 bound to GTP that is required to deliver initiator transfer RNA (tRNA) to ribosomes. While bulk messenger RNA (mRNA) translation can be sharply lowered by heightened phosphorylation of eIF2α, there are other gene transcripts whose translation is unchanged or preferentially translated. Among the preferentially translated genes is ATF4, which directs transcription of adaptive genes in the ISR. Recent Advances and Critical Issues: This review focuses on how eIF2α kinases function as first responders of stress, the mechanisms by which eIF2α phosphorylation and other stress signals regulate the exchange activity of eIF2B, and the processes by which the ISR triggers differential mRNA translation. To illustrate the synergy between stress pathways, we describe the mechanisms and functional significance of communication between the ISR and another key regulator of translation, mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), during acute and chronic amino acid insufficiency. Finally, we discuss the pathological conditions that stem from aberrant regulation of the ISR, as well as therapeutic strategies targeting the ISR to alleviate disease. Future Directions: Important topics for future ISR research are strategies for modulating this stress pathway in disease conditions and drug development, molecular processes for differential translation and the coordinate regulation of GCN2 and other stress pathways during physiological and pathological conditions. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 39, 351-373.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald C. Wek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Indiana University Melvin and Bren Simon Comprehensive Cancer Center, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Tracy G. Anthony
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Kirk A. Staschke
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Indiana University Melvin and Bren Simon Comprehensive Cancer Center, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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7
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Bollino D, Claiborne JP, Hameed K, Ma X, Tighe KM, Carter-Cooper B, Lapidus RG, Strovel ET, Emadi A. Erwinia asparaginase (crisantaspase) increases plasma levels of serine and glycine. Front Oncol 2022; 12:1035537. [PMID: 36578934 PMCID: PMC9790920 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.1035537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of asparaginases on plasma asparagine and glutamine is well established. However, the effect of asparaginases, particularly those derived from Erwinia chrysanthemi (also called crisantaspase), on circulating levels of other amino acids is unknown. We examined comprehensive plasma amino acid panel measurements in healthy immunodeficient/immunocompetent mice as well as in preclinical mouse models of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) using long-acting crisantaspase, and in an AML clinical study (NCT02283190) using short-acting crisantaspase. In addition to the expected decrease of plasma glutamine and asparagine, we observed a significant increase in plasma serine and glycine post-crisantaspase. In PDAC tumors, crisantaspase treatment significantly increased expression of serine biosynthesis enzymes. We then systematically reviewed clinical studies using asparaginase products to determine the extent of plasma amino acid reporting and found that only plasma levels of glutamine/glutamate and asparagine/aspartate were reported, without measuring other amino acid changes post-asparaginase. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to report comprehensive plasma amino acid changes in mice and humans treated with asparaginase. As dysregulated serine metabolism has been implicated in tumor development, our findings offer insights into how leukemia/cancer cells may potentially overcome glutamine/asparagine restriction, which can be used to design future synergistic therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Bollino
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States,Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - J. Preston Claiborne
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States,Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kanwal Hameed
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Xinrong Ma
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kayla M. Tighe
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Brandon Carter-Cooper
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Rena G. Lapidus
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States,Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Erin T. Strovel
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Ashkan Emadi
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States,Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States,Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, MD, United States,*Correspondence: Ashkan Emadi,
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8
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Steinberger AE, Tecos ME, Phelps HM, Rubin DC, Davidson NO, Guo J, Warner BW. A novel maladaptive unfolded protein response as a mechanism for small bowel resection-induced liver injury. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2022; 323:G165-G176. [PMID: 35727920 PMCID: PMC9377788 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00302.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a complex adaptive signaling pathway activated by the accumulation of misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER stress (ERS) triggers a cascade of responses that converge upon C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) to drive inflammation and apoptosis. Herein, we sought to determine whether liver injury and fibrosis after small bowel resection (SBR) were mediated by a maladaptive hepatic ERS/UPR. C57BL/6 mice underwent 50% proximal SBR or sham operation. Markers of liver injury and UPR/ERS pathways were analyzed. These were compared with experimental groups including dietary fat manipulation, tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) treatment, distal SBR, and global CHOP knockout (KO). At 10 wk, proximal SBR had elevated alanine aminotransferase/aspartate aminotransferase (ALT/AST) (P < 0.005) and greater hepatic tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) (P = 0.001) and collagen type 1 α1 (COL1A1) (P = 0.02) than shams. SBR livers had increased CHOP and p-eIF2α, but were absent in activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) protein expression. Low-fat diet (LFD), TUDCA, and distal SBR groups had decreased liver enzymes, inflammation, and fibrosis (P < 0.05). Importantly, they demonstrated reversal of hepatic UPR with diminished CHOP and robust ATF4 signal. CHOP KO-SBR had decreased ALT but not AST compared with wild-type (WT)-SBR (P = 0.01, P = 0.12). There were no differences in TNFα and COL1A1 (P = 0.09, P = 0.50). SBR-induced liver injury, fibrosis is associated with a novel hepatic UPR/ERS response characterized by increased CHOP and decreased ATF4. LFD, TUDCA, and ileocecal resection rescued the hepatic phenotype and reversed the UPR pattern. Global CHOP KO only partially attenuated liver injury. This underscores the significance of disruptions to the gut/liver axis after SBR and potentiates targets to mitigate the progression of intestinal failure-associated liver disease.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a complex signaling cascade that converges upon C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP). Under conditions of chronic cellular stress, the UPR shifts from homeostatic to proapoptotic leading to inflammation and cell death. Here, we provide evidence that small bowel resection-induced liver injury and fibrosis are mediated by a maladaptive hepatic UPR. Low-fat diet, TUDCA treatment, and ileocecal resection rescued the hepatic phenotype and reversed the UPR pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allie E Steinberger
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Maria E Tecos
- Department of Surgery, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - Hannah M Phelps
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Deborah C Rubin
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Nicholas O Davidson
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Jun Guo
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Brad W Warner
- Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis Children's Hospital, St. Louis, Missouri
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9
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Krokowski D, Jobava R, Szkop KJ, Chen CW, Fu X, Venus S, Guan BJ, Wu J, Gao Z, Banaszuk W, Tchorzewski M, Mu T, Ropelewski P, Merrick WC, Mao Y, Sevval AI, Miranda H, Qian SB, Manifava M, Ktistakis NT, Vourekas A, Jankowsky E, Topisirovic I, Larsson O, Hatzoglou M. Stress-induced perturbations in intracellular amino acids reprogram mRNA translation in osmoadaptation independently of the ISR. Cell Rep 2022; 40:111092. [PMID: 35858571 PMCID: PMC9491157 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The integrated stress response (ISR) plays a pivotal role in adaptation of translation machinery to cellular stress. Here, we demonstrate an ISR-independent osmoadaptation mechanism involving reprogramming of translation via coordinated but independent actions of mTOR and plasma membrane amino acid transporter SNAT2. This biphasic response entails reduced global protein synthesis and mTOR signaling followed by translation of SNAT2. Induction of SNAT2 leads to accumulation of amino acids and reactivation of mTOR and global protein synthesis, paralleled by partial reversal of the early-phase, stress-induced translatome. We propose SNAT2 functions as a molecular switch between inhibition of protein synthesis and establishment of an osmoadaptive translation program involving the formation of cytoplasmic condensates of SNAT2-regulated RNA-binding proteins DDX3X and FUS. In summary, we define key roles of SNAT2 in osmotolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawid Krokowski
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA; Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Raul Jobava
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA; Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Krzysztof J Szkop
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Science for Life Laboratories, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Chien-Wen Chen
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Xu Fu
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Sarah Venus
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Bo-Jhih Guan
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Jing Wu
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Zhaofeng Gao
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Wioleta Banaszuk
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Marek Tchorzewski
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland; EcoTech-Complex Centre, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
| | - Tingwei Mu
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Phil Ropelewski
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - William C Merrick
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Yuanhui Mao
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Aksoylu Inci Sevval
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Science for Life Laboratories, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Helen Miranda
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Shu-Bing Qian
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | | | - Anastasios Vourekas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Eckhard Jankowsky
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Ivan Topisirovic
- The Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal, QC, Canada; Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.
| | - Ola Larsson
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Science for Life Laboratories, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Maria Hatzoglou
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
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10
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Zhou X, Sam TW, Lee AY, Leung D. Mouse strain-specific polymorphic provirus functions as cis-regulatory element leading to epigenomic and transcriptomic variations. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6462. [PMID: 34753915 PMCID: PMC8578388 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26630-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymorphic integrations of endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) have been previously detected in mouse and human genomes. While most are inert, a subset can influence the activity of the host genes. However, the molecular mechanism underlying how such elements affect the epigenome and transcriptome and their roles in driving intra-specific variation remain unclear. Here, by utilizing wildtype murine embryonic stem cells (mESCs) derived from distinct genetic backgrounds, we discover a polymorphic MMERGLN (GLN) element capable of regulating H3K27ac enrichment and transcription of neighboring loci. We demonstrate that this polymorphic element can enhance the neighboring Klhdc4 gene expression in cis, which alters the activity of downstream stress response genes. These results suggest that the polymorphic ERV-derived cis-regulatory element contributes to differential phenotypes from stimuli between mouse strains. Moreover, we identify thousands of potential polymorphic ERVs in mESCs, a subset of which show an association between proviral activity and nearby chromatin states and transcription. Overall, our findings elucidate the mechanism of how polymorphic ERVs can shape the epigenome and transcriptional networks that give rise to phenotypic divergence between individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemeng Zhou
- Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Tsz Wing Sam
- Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Ah Young Lee
- Center for Epigenomics Research, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Danny Leung
- Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, SAR, China. .,Center for Epigenomics Research, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
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11
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Byles V, Cormerais Y, Kalafut K, Barrera V, Hughes Hallett JE, Sui SH, Asara JM, Adams CM, Hoxhaj G, Ben-Sahra I, Manning BD. Hepatic mTORC1 signaling activates ATF4 as part of its metabolic response to feeding and insulin. Mol Metab 2021; 53:101309. [PMID: 34303878 PMCID: PMC8368025 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is dynamically regulated by fasting and feeding cycles in the liver to promote protein and lipid synthesis while suppressing autophagy. However, beyond these functions, the metabolic response of the liver to feeding and insulin signaling orchestrated by mTORC1 remains poorly defined. Here, we determine whether ATF4, a stress responsive transcription factor recently found to be independently regulated by mTORC1 signaling in proliferating cells, is responsive to hepatic mTORC1 signaling to alter hepatocyte metabolism. METHODS ATF4 protein levels and expression of canonical gene targets were analyzed in the liver following fasting and physiological feeding in the presence or absence of the mTORC1 inhibitor, rapamycin. Primary hepatocytes from wild-type or liver-specific Atf4 knockout (LAtf4KO) mice were used to characterize the effects of insulin-stimulated mTORC1-ATF4 function on hepatocyte gene expression and metabolism. Both unbiased steady-state metabolomics and stable-isotope tracing methods were employed to define mTORC1 and ATF4-dependent metabolic changes. RNA-sequencing was used to determine global changes in feeding-induced transcripts in the livers of wild-type versus LAtf4KO mice. RESULTS We demonstrate that ATF4 and its metabolic gene targets are stimulated by mTORC1 signaling in the liver, in a hepatocyte-intrinsic manner by insulin in response to feeding. While we demonstrate that de novo purine and pyrimidine synthesis is stimulated by insulin through mTORC1 signaling in primary hepatocytes, this regulation was independent of ATF4. Metabolomics and metabolite tracing studies revealed that insulin-mTORC1-ATF4 signaling stimulates pathways of nonessential amino acid synthesis in primary hepatocytes, including those of alanine, aspartate, methionine, and cysteine, but not serine. CONCLUSIONS The results demonstrate that ATF4 is a novel metabolic effector of mTORC1 in the liver, extending the molecular consequences of feeding and insulin-induced mTORC1 signaling in this key metabolic tissue to the control of amino acid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Byles
- Department of Molecular Metabolism, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yann Cormerais
- Department of Molecular Metabolism, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Krystle Kalafut
- Department of Molecular Metabolism, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Victor Barrera
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - James E Hughes Hallett
- Department of Molecular Metabolism, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Shannan Ho Sui
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - John M Asara
- Division of Signal Transduction, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christopher M Adams
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nutrition, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Gerta Hoxhaj
- Department of Molecular Metabolism, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA; Children's Medical Center Research Institute, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Issam Ben-Sahra
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Brendan D Manning
- Department of Molecular Metabolism, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
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12
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Licari E, Sánchez-Del-Campo L, Falletta P. The two faces of the Integrated Stress Response in cancer progression and therapeutic strategies. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2021; 139:106059. [PMID: 34400318 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2021.106059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years considerable progress has been made in identifying the impact of mRNA translation in tumour progression. Cancer cells hijack the pre-existing translation machinery to thrive under the adverse conditions originating from intrinsic oncogenic programs, that increase their energetic demand, and from the hostile microenvironment. A key translation program frequently dysregulated in cancer is the Integrated Stress Response, that reprograms translation by attenuating global protein synthesis to decrease metabolic demand while increasing translation of specific mRNAs that support survival, migration, immune escape. In this review we provide an overview of the Integrated Stress Response, emphasise its dual role during tumorigenesis and cancer progression, and highlight the therapeutic strategies available to target it.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luis Sánchez-Del-Campo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology A, School of Biology, IMIB-University of Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Paola Falletta
- Experimental Imaging Center, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.
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13
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Davis JL, Thaler R, Cox L, Ricci B, Zannit HM, Wan F, Faccio R, Dudakovic A, van Wijnen AJ, Veis DJ. Constitutive activation of NF-κB inducing kinase (NIK) in the mesenchymal lineage using Osterix (Sp7)- or Fibroblast-specific protein 1 (S100a4)-Cre drives spontaneous soft tissue sarcoma. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254426. [PMID: 34292968 PMCID: PMC8297882 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Aberrant NF-κB signaling fuels tumor growth in multiple human cancer types including both hematologic and solid malignancies. Chronic elevated alternative NF-κB signaling can be modeled in transgenic mice upon activation of a conditional NF-κB-inducing kinase (NIK) allele lacking the regulatory TRAF3 binding domain (NT3). Here, we report that expression of NT3 in the mesenchymal lineage with Osterix (Osx/Sp7)-Cre or Fibroblast-Specific Protein 1 (FSP1)-Cre caused subcutaneous, soft tissue tumors. These tumors displayed significantly shorter latency and a greater multiple incidence rate in Fsp1-Cre;NT3 compared to Osx-Cre;NT3 mice, regardless of sex. Histological assessment revealed poorly differentiated solid tumors with some spindled patterns, as well as robust RelB immunostaining, confirming activation of alternative NF-κB. Even though NT3 expression also occurs in the osteolineage in Osx-Cre;NT3 mice, we observed no bony lesions. The staining profiles and pattern of Cre expression in the two lines pointed to a mesenchymal tumor origin. Immunohistochemistry revealed that these tumors stain strongly for alpha-smooth muscle actin (αSMA), although vimentin staining was uniform only in Osx-Cre;NT3 tumors. Negative CD45 and S100 immunostains precluded hematopoietic and melanocytic origins, respectively, while positive staining for cytokeratin 19 (CK19), typically associated with epithelia, was found in subpopulations of both tumors. Principal component, differential expression, and gene ontology analyses revealed that NT3 tumors are distinct from normal mesenchymal tissues and are enriched for NF-κB related biological processes. We conclude that constitutive activation of the alternative NF-κB pathway in the mesenchymal lineage drives spontaneous sarcoma and provides a novel mouse model for NF-κB related sarcomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L. Davis
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Division of Bone and Mineral Diseases, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Roman Thaler
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Linda Cox
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Division of Bone and Mineral Diseases, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Biancamaria Ricci
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Heather M. Zannit
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Fei Wan
- Department of Surgery, Division of Public Health Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Roberta Faccio
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, United States of America
- Shriners Hospitals for Children–St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Amel Dudakovic
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Andre J. van Wijnen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Deborah J. Veis
- Musculoskeletal Research Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Division of Bone and Mineral Diseases, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
- Shriners Hospitals for Children–St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
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14
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Jonsson WO, Margolies NS, Mirek ET, Zhang Q, Linden MA, Hill CM, Link C, Bithi N, Zalma B, Levy JL, Pettit AP, Miller JW, Hine C, Morrison CD, Gettys TW, Miller BF, Hamilton KL, Wek RC, Anthony TG. Physiologic Responses to Dietary Sulfur Amino Acid Restriction in Mice Are Influenced by Atf4 Status and Biological Sex. J Nutr 2021; 151:785-799. [PMID: 33512502 PMCID: PMC8030708 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxaa396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dietary sulfur amino acid restriction (SAAR) improves body composition and metabolic health across several model organisms in part through induction of the integrated stress response (ISR). OBJECTIVE We investigate the hypothesis that activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) acts as a converging point in the ISR during SAAR. METHODS Using liver-specific or global gene ablation strategies, in both female and male mice, we address the role of ATF4 during dietary SAAR. RESULTS We show that ATF4 is dispensable in the chronic induction of the hepatokine fibroblast growth factor 21 while being essential for the sustained production of endogenous hydrogen sulfide. We also affirm that biological sex, independent of ATF4 status, is a determinant of the response to dietary SAAR. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that auxiliary components of the ISR, which are independent of ATF4, are critical for SAAR-mediated improvements in metabolic health in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- William O Jonsson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | | | - Emily T Mirek
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, CO, USA
| | - Melissa A Linden
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, CO, USA
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Cristal M Hill
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Christopher Link
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Nazmin Bithi
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Brian Zalma
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Jordan L Levy
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Ashley P Pettit
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Joshua W Miller
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
| | - Christopher Hine
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | | | - Thomas W Gettys
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Benjamin F Miller
- Aging & Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Karyn L Hamilton
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, CO, USA
| | - Ronald C Wek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Tracy G Anthony
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
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15
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Pan S, Fan M, Liu Z, Li X, Wang H. Serine, glycine and one‑carbon metabolism in cancer (Review). Int J Oncol 2021; 58:158-170. [PMID: 33491748 PMCID: PMC7864012 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2020.5158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Serine/glycine biosynthesis and one‑carbon metabolism are crucial in sustaining cancer cell survival and rapid proliferation, and of high clinical relevance. Excessive activation of serine/glycine biosynthesis drives tumorigenesis and provides a single carbon unit for one‑carbon metabolism. One‑carbon metabolism, which is a complex cyclic metabolic network based on the chemical reaction of folate compounds, provides the necessary proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and other biological macromolecules to support tumor growth. Moreover, one‑carbon metabolism also maintains the redox homeostasis of the tumor microenvironment and provides substrates for the methylation reaction. The present study reviews the role of key enzymes with tumor‑promoting functions and important intermediates that are physiologically relevant to tumorigenesis in serine/glycine/one‑carbon metabolism pathways. The related regulatory mechanisms of action of the key enzymes and important intermediates in tumors are also discussed. It is hoped that investigations into these pathways will provide new translational opportunities for human cancer drug development, dietary interventions, and biomarker identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijing Pan
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology of Henan Province, Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, P.R. China
| | - Ming Fan
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology of Henan Province, Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, P.R. China
| | - Zhangnan Liu
- Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology of Henan Province, Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, P.R. China
| | - Xia Li
- Correspondence to: Dr Huijuan Wang or Dr Xia Li, Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology of Henan Province, Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, P.R. China, E-mail: , E-mail:
| | - Huijuan Wang
- Correspondence to: Dr Huijuan Wang or Dr Xia Li, Joint National Laboratory for Antibody Drug Engineering, Key Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology of Henan Province, Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Henan University, Jinming Road, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, P.R. China, E-mail: , E-mail:
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16
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Williams RT, Guarecuco R, Gates LA, Barrows D, Passarelli MC, Carey B, Baudrier L, Jeewajee S, La K, Prizer B, Malik S, Garcia-Bermudez J, Zhu XG, Cantor J, Molina H, Carroll T, Roeder RG, Abdel-Wahab O, Allis CD, Birsoy K. ZBTB1 Regulates Asparagine Synthesis and Leukemia Cell Response to L-Asparaginase. Cell Metab 2020; 31:852-861.e6. [PMID: 32268116 PMCID: PMC7219601 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2020.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) is a master transcriptional regulator of the integrated stress response (ISR) that enables cell survival under nutrient stress. The mechanisms by which ATF4 couples metabolic stresses to specific transcriptional outputs remain unknown. Using functional genomics, we identified transcription factors that regulate the responses to distinct amino acid deprivation conditions. While ATF4 is universally required under amino acid starvation, our screens yielded a transcription factor, Zinc Finger and BTB domain-containing protein 1 (ZBTB1), as uniquely essential under asparagine deprivation. ZBTB1 knockout cells are unable to synthesize asparagine due to reduced expression of asparagine synthetase (ASNS), the enzyme responsible for asparagine synthesis. Mechanistically, ZBTB1 binds to the ASNS promoter and promotes ASNS transcription. Finally, loss of ZBTB1 sensitizes therapy-resistant T cell leukemia cells to L-asparaginase, a chemotherapeutic that depletes serum asparagine. Our work reveals a critical regulator of the nutrient stress response that may be of therapeutic value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert T Williams
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Rohiverth Guarecuco
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Leah A Gates
- Laboratory of Chromatin Biology and Epigenetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Douglas Barrows
- Laboratory of Chromatin Biology and Epigenetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Maria C Passarelli
- Laboratory of Systems Cancer Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Bryce Carey
- Laboratory of Chromatin Biology and Epigenetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Lou Baudrier
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Swarna Jeewajee
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Konnor La
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Benjamin Prizer
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sohail Malik
- The Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Javier Garcia-Bermudez
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Xiphias Ge Zhu
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jason Cantor
- Morgridge Institute for Research, Madison, WI 53715, USA
| | - Henrik Molina
- Proteomics Resource Center, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Thomas Carroll
- Bioinformatics Resource Center, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Robert G Roeder
- The Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Omar Abdel-Wahab
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program and Leukemia Service, Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - C David Allis
- Laboratory of Chromatin Biology and Epigenetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Kıvanç Birsoy
- Laboratory of Metabolic Regulation and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.
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17
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Nikonorova IA, Zhu Q, Signore CC, Mirek ET, Jonsson WO, Kong B, Guo GL, Belden WJ, Anthony TG. Age modulates liver responses to asparaginase-induced amino acid stress in mice. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:13864-13875. [PMID: 31413113 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.009864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Asparaginase is an amino acid-depleting agent used to treat blood cancers. Metabolic complications due to asparaginase affect liver function in humans. To examine how the liver response to asparaginase changes during maturity to adulthood, here we treated juvenile (2-week), young adult (8-week), and mature adult (16-week) mice with drug or excipient for 1 week and conducted RNA-Seq and functional analyses. Asparaginase reduced body growth and liver mass in juveniles but not in the adult animals. Unbiased exploration of the effect of asparaginase on the liver transcriptome revealed that the integrated stress response (ISR) was the only molecular signature shared across the ages, corroborating similar eukaryotic initiation factor 2 phosphorylation responses to asparaginase at all ages. Juvenile livers exhibited steatosis and iron accumulation following asparaginase exposure along with a hepatic gene signature indicating that asparaginase uniquely affects lipid, cholesterol, and iron metabolism in juvenile mice. In contrast, asparaginase-treated adult mice displayed greater variability in liver function, which correlated with an acute-phase inflammatory response gene signature. Asparaginase-exposed adults also had a serine/glycine/one-carbon metabolism gene signature in liver that corresponded with reduced circulating glycine and serine levels. These results establish the ISR as a conserved response to asparaginase-mediated amino acid deprivation and provide new insights into the relationship between the liver transcriptome and hepatic function upon asparaginase exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inna A Nikonorova
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
| | - Qiaoqiao Zhu
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
| | - Christina C Signore
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
| | - Emily T Mirek
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
| | - William O Jonsson
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
| | - Bo Kong
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854
| | - Grace L Guo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854
| | - William J Belden
- Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
| | - Tracy G Anthony
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
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18
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Nikonorova IA, Mirek ET, Signore CC, Goudie MP, Wek RC, Anthony TG. Time-resolved analysis of amino acid stress identifies eIF2 phosphorylation as necessary to inhibit mTORC1 activity in liver. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:5005-5015. [PMID: 29449374 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra117.001625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Amino acid availability is sensed by GCN2 (general control nonderepressible 2) and mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), but how these two sensors coordinate their respective signal transduction events remains mysterious. In this study we utilized mouse genetic models to investigate the role of GCN2 in hepatic mTORC1 regulation upon amino acid stress induced by a single injection of asparaginase. We found that deletion of Gcn2 prevented hepatic phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2α to asparaginase and instead unleashed mTORC1 activity. This change in intracellular signaling occurred within minutes and resulted in increased 5'-terminal oligopyrimidine mRNA translation instead of activating transcription factor 4 synthesis. Asparaginase also promoted hepatic mRNA levels of several genes which function as mTORC1 inhibitors, and these genes were blunted or blocked in the absence of Gcn2, but their timing could not explain the early discordant effects in mTORC1 signaling. Preconditioning mice with a chemical endoplasmic reticulum stress agent before amino acid stress rescued normal mTORC1 repression in the liver of Gcn2-/- mice but not in livers with both Gcn2 and the endoplasmic reticulum stress kinase, Perk, deleted. Furthermore, treating wildtype and Gcn2-/- mice with ISRIB, an inhibitor of PERK signaling, also failed to alter hepatic mTORC1 responses to asparaginase, although administration of ISRIB alone had an inhibitory GCN2-independent effect on mTORC1 activity. Taken together, the data show that activating transcription factor 4 is not required, but eukaryotic initiation factor 2α phosphorylation is necessary to prevent mTORC1 activation during amino acid stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inna A Nikonorova
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901 and
| | - Emily T Mirek
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901 and
| | - Christina C Signore
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901 and
| | - Michael P Goudie
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901 and
| | - Ronald C Wek
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Tracy G Anthony
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901 and
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19
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Knott SRV, Wagenblast E, Khan S, Kim SY, Soto M, Wagner M, Turgeon MO, Fish L, Erard N, Gable AL, Maceli AR, Dickopf S, Papachristou EK, D'Santos CS, Carey LA, Wilkinson JE, Harrell JC, Perou CM, Goodarzi H, Poulogiannis G, Hannon GJ. Asparagine bioavailability governs metastasis in a model of breast cancer. Nature 2018; 554:378-381. [PMID: 29414946 PMCID: PMC5898613 DOI: 10.1038/nature25465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Using a functional model of breast cancer heterogeneity, we previously showed that clonal sub-populations proficient at generating circulating tumour cells were not all equally capable of forming metastases at secondary sites. A combination of differential expression and focused in vitro and in vivo RNA interference screens revealed candidate drivers of metastasis that discriminated metastatic clones. Among these, asparagine synthetase expression in a patient's primary tumour was most strongly correlated with later metastatic relapse. Here we show that asparagine bioavailability strongly influences metastatic potential. Limiting asparagine by knockdown of asparagine synthetase, treatment with l-asparaginase, or dietary asparagine restriction reduces metastasis without affecting growth of the primary tumour, whereas increased dietary asparagine or enforced asparagine synthetase expression promotes metastatic progression. Altering asparagine availability in vitro strongly influences invasive potential, which is correlated with an effect on proteins that promote the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. This provides at least one potential mechanism for how the bioavailability of a single amino acid could regulate metastatic progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon R V Knott
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
- Center for Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
| | - Elvin Wagenblast
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Showkhin Khan
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
- New York Genome Center, 101 6th Avenue, New York, New York 10013, USA
| | - Sun Y Kim
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
| | - Mar Soto
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
| | - Michel Wagner
- Division of Cancer Biology, The Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Marc-Olivier Turgeon
- Division of Cancer Biology, The Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Lisa Fish
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | - Nicolas Erard
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Annika L Gable
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
| | - Ashley R Maceli
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
| | - Steffen Dickopf
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
| | - Evangelia K Papachristou
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Clive S D'Santos
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Lisa A Carey
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 170 Manning Drive, CB7305, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - John E Wilkinson
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - J Chuck Harrell
- Department of Pathology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, USA
| | - Charles M Perou
- Department of Genetics and Pathology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Hani Goodarzi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | - George Poulogiannis
- Division of Cancer Biology, The Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London SW3 6JB, UK
- Division of Computational and Systems Medicine, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Gregory J Hannon
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK
- Watson School of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
- New York Genome Center, 101 6th Avenue, New York, New York 10013, USA
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