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Loenneker HD, Buchanan EM, Martinovici A, Primbs MA, Elsherif MM, Baker BJ, Dudda LA, Đurđević DF, Mišić K, Peetz HK, Röer JP, Schulze L, Wagner L, Wolska JK, Kührt C, Pronizius E. We don't know what you did last summer. On the importance of transparent reporting of reaction time data pre-processing. Cortex 2024; 172:14-37. [PMID: 38154375 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2023.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
In behavioral, cognitive, and social sciences, reaction time measures are an important source of information. However, analyses on reaction time data are affected by researchers' analytical choices and the order in which these choices are applied. The results of a systematic literature review, presented in this paper, revealed that the justification for and order in which analytical choices are conducted are rarely reported, leading to difficulty in reproducing results and interpreting mixed findings. To address this methodological shortcoming, we created a checklist on reporting reaction time pre-processing to make these decisions more explicit, improve transparency, and thus, promote best practices within the field. The importance of the pre-processing checklist was additionally supported by an expert consensus survey and a multiverse analysis. Consequently, we appeal for maximal transparency on all methods applied and offer a checklist to improve replicability and reproducibility of studies that use reaction time measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah D Loenneker
- Diagnostics and Cognitive Neuropsychology, Tübingen University, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Erin M Buchanan
- Analytics, Harrisburg University of Science and Technology, Harrisburg, USA.
| | - Ana Martinovici
- Department of Marketing Management, Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jan P Röer
- Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany.
| | | | - Lisa Wagner
- Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | | | - Corinna Kührt
- Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Ekaterina Pronizius
- Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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2
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Learned value modulates the access to visual awareness during continuous flash suppression. Sci Rep 2023; 13:756. [PMID: 36641499 PMCID: PMC9840604 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28004-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Monetary value enhances visual perception and attention and boosts activity in the primary visual cortex, however, it is still unclear whether monetary value can modulate the conscious access to rewarding stimuli. Here we investigate this issue by employing a breaking continuous flash suppression (b-CFS) paradigm. We measured suppression durations of sinusoidal gratings having orthogonal orientations under CFS in adult volunteers before and after a short session of Pavlovian associative learning in which each orientation was arbitrarily associated either with high or low monetary reward. We found that monetary value accelerated the access to visual awareness during CFS. Specifically, after the associative learning, suppression durations of the visual stimulus associated with high monetary value were shorter compared to the visual stimulus associated with low monetary value. Critically, the effect was replicated in a second experiment using a detection task for b-CFS that was orthogonal to the reward associative learning. These results indicate that monetary reward facilitates the access to awareness of visual stimuli associated with monetary value probably by boosting their representation at the early stages of visual processing in the brain.
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Primbs MA, Rinck M, Holland R, Knol W, Nies A, Bijlstra G. The effect of face masks on the stereotype effect in emotion perception. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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Grave J, Madeira N, Martins MJ, Silva S, Korb S, Soares SC. Slower access to visual awareness but otherwise intact implicit perception of emotional faces in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Conscious Cogn 2021; 93:103165. [PMID: 34274640 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia-spectrum disorders are characterized by deficits in social domains. Extant research has reported an impaired ability to perceive emotional faces in schizophrenia. Yet, it is unclear if these deficits occur already in the access to visual awareness. To investigate this question, 23 people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 22 healthy controls performed a breaking continuous flash suppression task with fearful, happy, and neutral faces. Response times were analysed with generalized linear mixed models. People with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders were slower than controls in detecting faces, but did not show emotion-specific impairments. Moreover, happy faces were detected faster than neutral and fearful faces, across all participants. Although caution is needed when interpreting the main effect of group, our findings may suggest an elevated threshold for visual awareness in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, but an intact implicit emotion perception. Our study provides a new insight into the mechanisms underlying emotion perception in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Grave
- William James Center for Research, Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Center for Health Technology and Services Research, Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Nuno Madeira
- Psychiatry Department, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Praceta Prof. Mota Pinto, 3000-075 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute of Psychological Medicine, Faculty of Medicine - University of Coimbra, Portugal, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Maria João Martins
- Institute of Psychological Medicine, Faculty of Medicine - University of Coimbra, Portugal, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Ocupational Health and Safety Management Services, University of Coimbra Social Services, Rua Doutor Guilherme Moreira 12, 3000-210 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Samuel Silva
- Department of Electronics, Telecommunication and Informatics (DETI)/Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering (IEETA), University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Sebastian Korb
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, CO4 3SQ Colchester, United Kingdom; Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, Liebiggasse 5 1010, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sandra Cristina Soares
- William James Center for Research, Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Center for Health Technology and Services Research, Department of Education and Psychology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
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Paffen CLE, Sahakian A, Struiksma ME, Van der Stigchel S. Unpredictive linguistic verbal cues accelerate congruent visual targets into awareness in a breaking continuous flash suppression paradigm. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:2102-2112. [PMID: 33786749 PMCID: PMC8213547 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02297-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
One of the most influential ideas within the domain of cognition is that of embodied cognition, in which the experienced world is the result of an interplay between an organism's physiology, sensorimotor system, and its environment. An aspect of this idea is that linguistic information activates sensory representations automatically. For example, hearing the word 'red' would automatically activate sensory representations of this color. But does linguistic information prioritize access to awareness of congruent visual information? Here, we show that linguistic verbal cues accelerate matching visual targets into awareness by using a breaking continuous flash suppression paradigm. In a speeded reaction time task, observers heard spoken color labels (e.g., red) followed by colored targets that were either congruent (red), incongruent (green), or neutral (a neutral noncolor word) with respect to the labels. Importantly, and in contrast to previous studies investigating a similar question, the incidence of congruent trials was not higher than that of incongruent trials. Our results show that RTs were selectively shortened for congruent verbal-visual pairings, and that this shortening occurred over a wide range of cue-target intervals. We suggest that linguistic verbal information preactivates sensory representations, so that hearing the word 'red' preactivates (visual) sensory information internally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris L E Paffen
- Department of Experimental Psychology & Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Andre Sahakian
- Department of Experimental Psychology & Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Marijn E Struiksma
- Department of Language, Literature & Communication, Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan Van der Stigchel
- Department of Experimental Psychology & Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Ananyev E, Yong Z, Hsieh PJ. Center-surround velocity-based segmentation: Speed, eccentricity, and timing of visual stimuli interact to determine interocular dominance. J Vis 2020; 19:3. [PMID: 31689716 DOI: 10.1167/19.13.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We used a novel method to capture the spatial dominance pattern of competing motion fields at rivalry onset. When rivaling velocities were different, the participants reported center-surround segmentation: The slower stimuli often dominated in the center while faster motion persisted along the borders. The size of the central static/slow field scaled with the stimulus size. The central dominance was time-locked to the static stimulus onset but was disrupted if the dynamic stimulus was presented later. We then used the same stimuli as masks in an interocular suppression paradigm. The local suppression strengths were probed with targets at different eccentricities. Consistent with the center-surround segmentation, target speed and location interacted with mask velocities. Specifically, suppression power of the slower masks was nonhomogenous with eccentricity, providing a potential explanation for center-surround velocity-based segmentation. This interaction of speed, eccentricity, and timing has implications for motion processing and interocular suppression. The influence of different masks on which target features get suppressed predicts that some "unconscious effects" are not generalizable across masks and, thus, need to be replicated under various masking conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egor Ananyev
- Nanyang Technological University, Department of Psychology, Singapore
| | - Zixin Yong
- Duke-NUS Medical School, Neuroscience and Behavioural Disorders Program, Singapore
| | - Po-Jang Hsieh
- National Taiwan University, Department of Psychology, Taipei, Taiwan
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Cheng K, Ding A, Jiang L, Tian H, Yan H. Emotion in Chinese Words Could Not Be Extracted in Continuous Flash Suppression. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:309. [PMID: 31572149 PMCID: PMC6751281 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated the automatic vigilance effect for faces and pictures and have attributed it to the brain's prioritized unconscious evaluation of early evolutionary stimuli that are critical to survival. Whether this effect exists for evolutionarily more recent stimuli, such as written words, has become the center of much debate. Apparently contradicting results have been reported in different languages, such as Hebrew, English, and Traditional Chinese (TC), with regard to the unconscious processing of emotional words in breaking continuous flash suppression (b-CFS). Our current study used two experiments (with two-character words or single-character words) to verify whether the emotional valence or the length of Simplified Chinese (SC) words would modulate conscious access in b-CFS. We failed to replicate the findings reported in Yang and Yeh (2011) using TC, but found that complex high-level emotional information could not be extracted from interocularly suppressed words regardless of their length. Our findings comply with the distinction between subliminal and preconscious states in Global Neuronal Workspace Theory and support the current notion that preconsciousness or partial awareness may be indispensable for high-level cognitive tasks such as reading comprehension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiwen Cheng
- MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
- School of Foreign Languages, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China
| | - Aolin Ding
- MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Lianfang Jiang
- MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Han Tian
- MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Hongmei Yan
- MOE Key Lab for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
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Valuch C, Mattler U. Action priming is linked to visual perception in continuous flash suppression. J Vis 2019; 19:13. [DOI: 10.1167/19.7.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Valuch
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Goettingen, Germany
- ://experiment.one
| | - Uwe Mattler
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
- ://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/en/experimental/people/mattler-uwe?set_language=en
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Moors P, Hesselmann G. Unconscious arithmetic: Assessing the robustness of the results reported by Karpinski, Briggs, and Yale (2018). Conscious Cogn 2019; 68:97-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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"Real-life" continuous flash suppression (CFS)-CFS with real-world objects using augmented reality goggles. Behav Res Methods 2018; 51:2827-2839. [PMID: 30430349 PMCID: PMC6877487 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-018-1162-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Continuous flash suppression (CFS) is a popular method for suppressing visual stimuli from awareness for relatively long periods. Thus far, this method has only been used for suppressing two-dimensional images presented on screen. We present a novel variant of CFS, termed “real-life” CFS, in which a portion of the actual immediate surroundings of an observer—including three-dimensional, real-life objects—can be rendered unconscious. Our method uses augmented reality goggles to present subjects with CFS masks to the dominant eye, leaving the nondominant eye exposed to the real world. In three experiments we demonstrated that real objects can indeed be suppressed from awareness for several seconds, on average, and that the suppression duration is comparable to that obtained using classic, on-screen CFS. As supplementary information, we further provide an example of experimental code that can be modified for future studies. This technique opens the way to new questions in the study of consciousness and its functions.
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No evidence for dorsal-stream-based priming under continuous flash suppression. Conscious Cogn 2018; 64:84-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2018.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Del Río M, Greenlee MW, Volberg G. Neural dynamics of breaking continuous flash suppression. Neuroimage 2018; 176:277-289. [PMID: 29684643 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory input to the human visual system often becomes accessible to cognition and overt report during processing. We investigated neural precursors of conscious vision using EEG recordings and the popular breaking continuous flash suppression (bCFS) paradigm. In this technique, a mask consisting of high-contrast dynamic patterns is presented to one eye, predominating over a target stimulus presented to the other eye. The time needed for the target stimulus to overcome the suppression is thought to reflect the transition from unconscious to conscious perception. In bCFS trials with slow responses, indicative of potent suppression, a time-frequency analysis showed reduced occipital gamma power (33-38 Hz) contralaterally to the visual hemifield where the target was presented 0.27 to 0.21 s prior to the behavioral response. This neural activity was concurrent with a local phase reset and enhanced long-range phase synchronization in the theta band (7 Hz). Such a pattern did not arise in a control condition in which suppression was not induced. Thus, the theta phase reset and synchronization in bCFS trials precede a break from suppression, likely initiating a re-routing of information such that the neural representation of the target is updated more efficiently than that of the competing mask. Overall, these findings mark the emergence of a binocularly integrated percept that can be consciously selected for a behavioral response.
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