The identification of molecular target of (20S) ginsenoside Rh2 for its anti-cancer activity

MYC Oncogene: A Druggable Target for Treating Cancers with Natural Products

Various diseases, including cancers, age-associated disorders, and acute liver failure, have been linked to the oncogene, MYC. Animal testing and clinical trials have shown that sustained tumor volume reduction can be achieved when MYC is inactivated, and different combinations of therapeutic agents including MYC inhibitors are currently being developed. In this review, we first provide a summary of the multiple biological functions of the MYC oncoprotein in cancer treatment, highlighting that the equilibrium points of the MYC/MAX, MIZ1/MYC/MAX, and MAD (MNT)/MAX complexes have further potential in cancer treatment that could be used to restrain MYC oncogene expression and its functions in tumorigenesis. We also discuss the multifunctional capacity of MYC in various cellular cancer processes, including its influences on immune response, metabolism, cell cycle, apoptosis, autophagy, pyroptosis, metastasis, angiogenesis, multidrug resistance, and intestinal flora. Moreover, we summarize the MYC therapy patent landscape and emphasize the potential of MYC as a druggable target, using herbal medicine modulators. Finally, we describe pending challenges and future perspectives in biomedical research, involving the development of therapeutic approaches to modulate MYC or its targeted genes. Patients with cancers driven by MYC signaling may benefit from therapies targeting these pathways, which could delay cancerous growth and recover antitumor immune responses.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of Rh2 and aPPD ginsenosides in prostate cancer: a drug interaction perspective

Ginsenoside Rh2 and its aglycon (aPPD) are one of the major metabolites from Panax ginseng. Preclinical studies suggest that Rh2 and aPPD have antitumor effects in prostate cancer (PCa). Our aims in this review are (1) to describe the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of Rh2 and aPPD ginsenosides; 2) to provide an overview of the preclinical findings on the use of Rh2 and aPPD in the treatment of PCa; and (3) to highlight the mechanisms of its PK and pharmacodynamic (PD) drug interactions. Increasing evidence points to the potential efficacy of Rh2 or aPPD for PCa treatment. Based on the laboratory studies, Rh2 or aPPD combinations revealed an additive or synergistic interaction or enhanced sensitivity of anticancer drugs toward PCa. This review reveals that enhanced anticancer activities were demonstrated in preclinical studies through interactions of Rh2 and/or aPPD with the proteins related to PK (e.g., cytochrome P450 enzymes, transporters) or PD of the other anticancer drugs or PCa signaling pathways. In conclusion, combining Rh2 or aPPD with anti-prostate cancer drugs leads to PK or PD interactions which could facilitate either therapeutically beneficial or toxic effects.

Synergistic Effect of Ginsenoside Rh2 Combines with Ionizing Radiation on CT26/luc Colon Carcinoma Cells and Tumor-Bearing Animal Model

BACKGROUND

The local tumor control rate of colon cancer by radiotherapy is unsatisfactory due to recurrence and radioresistance. Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2), a panoxadiol saponin, possesses various antitumor effects.

METHODS

CT26/luc murine colon carcinoma cells and a CT26/luc tumor-bearing animal model were used to investigate the therapeutic efficacy of Rh2 combined with ionizing radiation and the underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

Rh2 caused cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase in CT26/luc cells; however, when combined with ionizing radiation, the cells were arrested at the G2/M phase. Rh2 was found to suppress the activity of NF-κB induced by radiation by inhibiting the MAPK pathway, consequently affecting the expression of effector proteins. In an in vivo study, the combination treatment significantly increased tumor growth delay time and overall survival. Furthermore, the combination treatment significantly reduced NF-κB and NF-κB-related effector proteins, along with PD-1 receptor expression. Additionally, Rh2 administration led to increased levels of interleukin-12, -18, and interferon-γ in the mice's sera. Importantly, biochemical analysis revealed no toxicities associated with Rh2 alone or combined with radiation.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of Rh2 with radiation may have potential as an alternative to improve the therapeutic efficacy of colorectal cancer.

Challenges and Perspectives in Target Identification and Mechanism Illustration for Chinese Medicine

Chinese medicine (CM) is an important resource for human life understanding and discovery of drugs. However, due to the unclear pharmacological mechanism caused by unclear target, research and international promotion of many active components have made little progress in the past decades of years. CM is mainly composed of multi-ingredients with multi-targets. The identification of targets of multiple active components and the weight analysis of multiple targets in a specific pathological environment, that is, the determination of the most important target is the main obstacle to the mechanism clarification and thus hinders its internationalization. In this review, the main approach to target identification and network pharmacology were summarized. And BIBm (Bayesian inference modeling), a powerful method for drug target identification and key pathway determination was introduced. We aim to provide a new scientific basis and ideas for the development and international promotion of new drugs based on CM.

(20S) Ginsenoside Rh2-Activated, Distinct Apoptosis Pathways in Highly and Poorly Differentiated Human Esophageal Cancer Cells

Ginsenoside Rh2 (G-Rh2), a rare ginsenoside isolated from red ginseng, has considerable anti-cancer activity and induces apoptosis in a variety of cancer cells, but its activity in esophageal cancer cells is unclear. In this study, we examined the cytotoxic activity of (20S) G-Rh2 in highly differentiated esophageal squamous ECA109 cells and poorly differentiated esophageal squamous TE-13 cells. (20S) G-Rh2 exerted intense cytotoxicity in ECA109 and TE-13 cells with an IC50 of 2.9 and 3.7 μg/mL, respectively. After treatment with G-Rh2, Bcl-2, and Bcl-xL, the two main anti-apoptosis Bcl-2 family proteins upregulated, and Bax and Bak, the two key pro-apoptosis proteins translocated to mitochondria in both cell lines. At the same time, cytochrome c and Smac released from mitochondria, followed by caspase-9 activation, indicating that a mitochondria-mediated intrinsic apoptosis pathway was activated in both cell lines upon treatment with (20S) G-Rh2. It is noteworthy that (20S) G-Rh2 upregulated the transcription and protein expression of two death receptors, Fas and DR5, and subsequently activated Caspase-8 in the TE-13 cells but not in the ECA109 cells. Taken together, we demonstrated the potent anti-esophageal cancer cell activity of (20S) G-Rh2 and showed its working mechanism in two differentiated esophageal cancer cells, which can provide important evidence for developing an effective strategy for anti-esophageal cancer treatment.

Behavior of Triterpenoid Saponin Ginsenoside Rh2 in Ordered and Disordered Phases in Model Membranes Consisting of Sphingomyelin, Phosphatidylcholine, and Cholesterol

The ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2) is a saponin of medicinal ginseng, and it has attracted much attention for its pharmacological activities. In this study, we investigated the interaction of Rh2 with biological membranes using model membranes. We examined the effects of various lipids on the membrane-disrupting activity of Rh2 and found that cholesterol and sphingomyelin (SM) had no significant effect. Furthermore, the effects of Rh2 on acyl chain packing (DPH anisotropy) and water molecule permeability (GP₃₄₀ values) did not differ significantly between bilayers containing SM and saturated phosphatidylcholine. These results suggest that the formation of the liquid-ordered (Lo) phase affects the behavior of Rh2 in the membrane rather than a specific interaction of Rh2 with a particular lipid. We investigated the effects of Rh2 on the Lo and liquid-disordered (Ld) phases using surface tension measurements and fluorescence experiments. In the surface tension-area isotherms, we compared the monolayers of the Ld and Lo lipid compositions and found that Rh2 is abundantly bound to both monolayers, with the amount being greater in the Ld phase than in the Lo phase. In addition, the hydration state of the bilayers, mainly consisting of the Lo or Ld phase, showed that Rh2 tends to bind to the surface of the bilayer in both phases. At higher concentrations, Rh2 tends to bind more abundantly to the relatively shallow interior of the Ld phase than the Lo phase. The phase-dependent membrane behavior of Rh2 is probably due to the phase-selective affinity and binding mode of Rh2.

Network Pharmacology-Based Prediction and Verification of Ginsenoside Rh2-Induced Apoptosis of A549 Cells via the PI3K/Akt Pathway

Ginsenoside Rh2 (G-Rh2), a rare protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type triterpene saponin, from Panax ginseng has anti-proliferation, anti-invasion, and anti-metastatic activity. However, the mechanisms by which G-Rh2 induces apoptosis of lung cancer cells are unclear. In the present work, a G-Rh2 target-lung cancer network was constructed and analyzed by the network pharmacology approach. A total of 91 compound-targets of G-Rh2 was obtained based on the compound-target network analysis, and 217 targets were identified for G-Rh2 against lung cancer by PPI network analysis. The 217 targets were significantly enriched in 103 GO terms with FDR <0.05 as threshold in the GO enrichment analysis. In KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, all the candidate targets were significantly enriched in 143 pathways, among of which PI3K-Akt signaling pathway was identified as one of the top enriched pathway. Besides, G-Rh2 induced apoptosis in human lung epithelial (A549) cells was verified in this work. G-Rh2 significantly inhibited the proliferation of A549 cells in a dose-dependent manner, and the apoptosis rate significantly increased from 4.4% to 78.7% using flow cytometry. Western blot analysis revealed that the phosphorylation levels of p85, PDK1, Akt and IκBα were significantly suppressed by G-Rh2. All the experimental findings were consistent with the network pharmacology results. Research findings in this work will provide potential therapeutic value for further mechanism investigations.

Annexin A2: The Diversity of Pathological Effects in Tumorigenesis and Immune Response

Annexin A2 (ANXA2) is widely used as a marker in a variety of tumors. By regulating multiple signal pathways, ANXA2 promotes the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, which can cause tumorigenesis and accelerate thymus degeneration. The elevated ANXA2 heterotetramer facilitates the production of plasmin, which participates in pathophysiologic processes such as tumor cell invasion and metastasis, bleeding diseases, angiogenesis, inducing the expression of inflammatory factors. In addition, the ANXA2 on the cell membrane mediates immune response via its interaction with surface proteins of pathogens, C1q, toll-like receptor 2, anti-dsDNA antibodies and immunoglobulins. Nuclear ANXA2 plays a role as part of a primer recognition protein complex that enhances DNA synthesis and cells proliferation by acting on the G1-S phase of the cell. ANXA2 reduction leads to the inhibition of invasion and metastasis in multiple tumor cells, bleeding complications in acute promyelocytic leukemia, retinal angiogenesis, autoimmunity response and tumor drug resistance. In this review, we provide an update on the pathological effects of ANXA2 in both tumorigenesis and the immune response. We highlight ANXA2 as a critical protein in numerous malignancies and the immune host response.

Probable Mechanisms of Doxorubicin Antitumor Activity Enhancement by Ginsenoside Rh2

Ginsenoside Rh2 increases the efficacy of doxorubicin (DOX) treatment in murine models of solid and ascites Ehrlich’s adenocarcinoma. In a solid tumor model (treatment commencing 7 days after inoculation), DOX + Rh2 co-treatment was significantly more efficacious than DOX alone. If treatment was started 24 h after inoculation, the inhibition of tumor growth of a solid tumor for the DOX + Rh2 co-treatment group was complete. Furthermore, survival in the ascites model was dramatically higher for the DOX + Rh2 co-treatment group than for DOX alone. Mechanisms underlying the combined DOX and Rh2 effects were studied in primary Ehrlich’s adenocarcinoma-derived cells and healthy mice’s splenocytes. Despite the previously established Rh2 pro-oxidant activity, DOX + Rh2 co-treatment revealed no increase in ROS compared to DOX treatment alone. However, DOX + Rh2 treatment was more effective in suppressing Ehrlich adenocarcinoma cell adhesion than either treatment alone. We hypothesize that the benefits of DOX + Rh2 combination treatment are due to the suppression of tumor cell attachment/invasion that might be effective in preventing metastatic spread of tumor cells. Ginsenoside Rh2 was found to be a modest activator in a Neh2-luc reporter assay, suggesting that Rh2 can activate the Nrf2-driven antioxidant program. Rh2-induced direct activation of Nrf2 might provide additional benefits by minimizing DOX toxicity towards non-cancerous cells.

(20S) Ginsenoside Rh2 Exerts Its Anti-Tumor Effect by Disrupting the HSP90A-Cdc37 System in Human Liver Cancer Cells

(20S) ginsenoside Rh2 (G-Rh2), a major bioactive metabolite of ginseng, effectively inhibits the survival and proliferation of human liver cancer cells. However, its molecular targets and working mechanism remain largely unknown. Excitingly, we screened out heat shock protein 90 alpha (HSP90A), a key regulatory protein associated with liver cancer, as a potential target of (20S) G-Rh2 by phage display analysis and mass spectrometry. The molecular docking and thermal shift analyses demonstrated that (20S) G-Rh2 directly bound to HSP90A, and this binding was confirmed to inhibit the interaction between HSP90A and its co-chaperone, cell division cycle control protein 37 (Cdc37). It is well-known that the HSP90A-Cdc37 system aids in the folding and maturation of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). As expected, CDK4 and CDK6, the two G₀-G₁ phase promoting kinases as well as CDK2, a key G₁-S phase transition promoting kinase, were significantly downregulated with (20S) G-Rh2 treatment, and these downregulations were mediated by the proteasome pathway. In the same condition, the cell cycle was arrested at the G₀-G₁ phase and cell growth was inhibited significantly by (20S) G-Rh2 treatment. Taken together, this study for the first time reveals that (20S) G-Rh2 exerts its anti-tumor effect by targeting HSP90A and consequently disturbing the HSP90A-Cdc37 chaperone system. HSP90A is frequently overexpressed in human hepatoma cells and the higher expression is closely correlated to the poor prognosis of liver cancer patients. Thus, (20S) G-Rh2 might become a promising alternative drug for liver cancer therapy.

A possible mechanism to the antidepressant-like effects of 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol based on its target protein 14-3-3 ζ

Background

Ginsenosides and their metabolites have antidepressant-like effects, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We previously identified 14-3-3 ζ as one of the target proteins of 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), a fully deglycosylated ginsenoside metabolite.

Methods

Corticosterone (CORT) was administered repeatedly to induce the depression model, and PPD was given concurrently. The tail suspension test (TST) and the forced swimming test (FST) were used for behavioral evaluation. All mice were sacrificed. Golgi-cox staining, GSK 3β activity assay, and Western blot analysis were performed. In vitro, the kinetic binding analysis with the Biolayer Interferometry (BLI) was used to determine the molecular interactions.

Results

TST and FST both revealed that PPD reversed CORT-induced behavioral deficits. PPD also ameliorated the CORT-induced expression alterations of hippocampal Ser9 phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase 3β (p-Ser9 GSK 3β), Ser133 phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (p-Ser133 CREB), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Moreover, PPD attenuated the CORT-induced increase in GSK 3β activity and decrease in dendritic spine density in the hippocampus. In vitro, 14-3-3 ζ protein specifically bound to p-Ser9 GSK 3β polypeptide. PPD promoted the binding and subsequently decreased GSK 3β activity.

Conclusion

These findings demonstrated the antidepressant-like effects of PPD on the CORT-induced mouse depression model and indicated a possible target-based mechanism. The combination of PPD with the 14-3-3 ζ protein may promote the binding of 14-3-3 ζ to p-GSK 3β (Ser9) and enhance the inhibition of Ser9 phosphorylation on GSK 3β kinase activity, thereby activating the plasticity-related CREB–BDNF signaling pathway.

Ginsenoside Rh2 upregulates long noncoding RNA STXBP5-AS1 to sponge microRNA-4425 in suppressing breast cancer cell proliferation

Background

Ginsenoside Rh2, a major saponin derivative in ginseng extract, is recognized for its anticancer activities. Compared to coding genes, studies on long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) that are regulated by Rh2 in cancer cells, especially on competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) are sparse.

Methods

LncRNAs whose promoter DNA methylation level was significantly altered by Rh2 were screened from methylation array data. The effect of STXBP5-AS1, miR-4425, and RNF217 on the proliferation and apoptosis of MCF-7 breast cancer cells was monitored in the presence of Rh2 after deregulating the corresponding gene. The ceRNA relationship between STXBP5-AS1 and miR-4425 was examined by measuring the luciferase activity of a recombinant luciferase/STXBP5-AS1 plasmid construct in the presence of mimic miR-4425.

Results

Inhibition of STXBP5-AS1 decreased apoptosis but stimulated growth of the MCF-7 cells, suggesting tumor-suppressive activity of the lncRNA. MiR-4425 was identified to have a binding site on STXBP5-AS1 and proven to be downregulated by STXBP5-AS1 as well as by Rh2. In contrast to STXBP5-AS1, miR-4425 showed pro-proliferation activity by inducing a decrease in apoptosis but increased growth of the MCF-7 cells. MiR-4425 decreased luciferase activity from the luciferase/STXBP5-AS1 construct by 26%. Screening the target genes of miR-4425 and Rh2 revealed that Rh2, STXBP5-AS1, and miR-4425 consistently regulated tumor suppressor RNF217 at both the RNA and protein level.

Conclusion

LncRNA STXBP5-AS1 is upregulated by Rh2 via promoter hypomethylation and acts as a ceRNA, sponging the oncogenic miR-4425. Therefore, Rh2 controls the STXBP5-AS1/miR-4425/RNF217 axis to suppress breast cancer cell growth.

Ginsenoside Rh2 stimulates the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and induces apoptosis of cervical cancer cells by inhibiting mitochondrial electron transfer chain complex

Ginsenoside Rh2 (G-Rh2) is a monomeric compound that extracted from ginseng and possesses anti-cancer activities both in vitro and in vivo. Previously, we reported that G-Rh2 induces apoptosis in HeLa cervical cancer cells and that the process was related to reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and mitochondrial dysfunction. However, the upstream mechanisms of G-Rh2, along with its cellular targets, remain to be elucidated. In the present study, the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, flow cytometry and Hoechst staining revealed that G-Rh2 significantly inhibited cell viability and induced apoptosis of cervical cancer cells. However, G-Rh2 was demonstrated to be non-toxic to End1/e6e7 cells. JC-1, rhodamine 123 staining, oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis capacity assays demonstrated that G-Rh2 exposure caused an immediate decrease in mitochondrial transmembrane potential due to its inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, as well as glycolysis, both of which reduced cellular ATP production. Western blotting and electron transport chain (ETC) activity assays revealed that G-Rh2 significantly inhibited the activity of ETC complexes I, III and V. Overexpression of ETC complex III partially significantly restored mitochondrial ROS and inhibited the apoptosis of cervical cancer cells induced by G-Rh2. The predicted results of binding energy in molecular docking, confirmed that G-Rh2 was highly likely to induce mitochondrial ROS production and promote cell apoptosis by targeting the ETC complex, especially for ETC complex III. Taken together, the present results revealed the potential anti-cervical cancer activity of G-Rh2 and provide direct evidence for the contribution of impaired ETC complex activity to cervical cancer cell death.

Advances in Biocatalytic Synthesis, Pharmacological Activities, Pharmaceutical Preparation and Metabolism of Ginsenoside Rh2

Ginsenoside Rh2 (3β-O-Glc-protopanaxadiol), a trace but characteristic pharmacological component of red ginseng, exhibited versatile pharmacological activities, such as antitumor effects, improved cardiac function and fibrosis, anti-inflammatory effects, antibiosis and excellent medicinal potential. In recent years, increased research has been performed on the biocatalytic synthesis of ginsenoside Rh2. In this paper, advances in the biocatalytic synthesis, pharmacological activities, pharmaceutical preparation and metabolism of ginsenoside Rh2 are reviewed.

(20S) Ginsenoside Rh2 Inhibits STAT3/VEGF Signaling by Targeting Annexin A2

Signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) acts as a transcriptional signal transducer, converting cytokine stimulation into specific gene expression. In tumor cells, aberrant activation of the tyrosine kinase pathway leads to excessive and continuous activation of STAT3, which provides further signals for tumor cell growth and surrounding angiogenesis. In this process, the tumor-associated protein Annexin A2 interacts with STAT3 and promotes Tyr705 phosphorylation and STAT3 transcriptional activation. In this study, we found that (20S) ginsenoside Rh2 (G-Rh2), a natural compound inhibitor of Annexin A2, inhibited STAT3 activity in HepG2 cells. (20S) G-Rh2 interfered with the interaction between Annexin A2 and STAT3, and inhibited Tyr705 phosphorylation and subsequent transcriptional activity. The inhibitory activity of STAT3 leaded to the negative regulation of the four VEGFs, which significantly reduced the enhanced growth and migration ability of HUVECs in co-culture system. In addition, (20S)G-Rh2 failed to inhibit STAT3 activity in cells overexpressing (20S)G-Rh2 binding-deficient Annexin A2-K301A mutant, further proving Annexin A2-mediated inhibition of STAT3 by (20S)G-Rh2. These results indicate that (20S)G-Rh2 is a potent inhibitor of STAT3, predicting the potential activity of (20S)G-Rh2 in targeted therapy applications.

Pseudoginsengenin DQ exerts antitumour activity against hypopharyngeal cancer cells by targeting the HIF-1α-GLUT1 pathway

BACKGROUND

Ginsenosides have been reported to possess a variety of biological activities. Synthesized from the ginsenoside protopanaxadiol (PPD), the octanone pseudoginsengenin DQ (PDQ) may have robust pharmacological effects as a secondary ginsenoside. Nevertheless, its antitumour activity and molecular mechanism against hypopharyngeal cancer cells remain unclear.

METHODS

Cell Counting Kit8 assays, cell cycle assays and cell apoptosis assays were conducted to assess FaDu cell proliferation, cell phase and apoptosis. The interactions between PDQ and HIF-1α were investigated by a molecular docking study. The expression of HIF-1α, GLUT1, and apoptosis-related proteins was detected by Western blotting, direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) and qRT-PCR. A glucose uptake assay was used to assess the glucose uptake capacity of FaDu cells.

RESULTS

PDQ suppressed proliferation, reduced glucose uptake, and induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in FaDu cells. A molecular docking study demonstrated that PDQ could interact with the active site of HIF-1α. PDQ decreased the expression and mRNA levels of HIF-1α and its downstream factor GLUT1. Moreover, the dSTORM results showed that PDQ reduced GLUT1 expression on the cell membrane and inhibited GLUT1 clustering.

CONCLUSION

Our work showed that the antitumour effect of PDQ was related to the downregulation of the HIF-1α-GLUT1 pathway, suggesting that PDQ could be a potential therapeutic agent for hypopharyngeal cancer treatment.

The Anti-Tumor Effect and Underlying Apoptotic Mechanism of Ginsenoside Rk1 and Rg5 in Human Liver Cancer Cells

Ginsenoside Rk1 and Rg5 are minor ginseng saponins that have received more attention recently because of their high oral bioavailability. Each of them can effectively inhibit the survival and proliferation of human liver cancer cells, but the underlying mechanism remains largely unknown. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis demonstrated that G-Rk1 and G-Rg5 yielded 142 potential targets, and shared 44 putative targets associated with hepatocellular carcinoma. Enrichment analysis of the overlapped genes showed that G-Rk1 and G-Rg5 may induce apoptosis of liver cancer cells through inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signal pathways. Methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay was used to confirm the inhibition of cell viability with G-Rk1 or G-Rg5 in highly metastatic human cancer MHCC-97H cells. We evaluated the apoptosis of MHCC-97H cells by using flow cytometry and 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining. The translocation of Bax/Bak led to the depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential and release of cytochrome c and Smac. A sequential activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3 and the cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) were observed after that. The levels of anti-apoptotic proteins were decreased after treatment of G-Rk1 or G-Rg5 in MHCC-97H cells. Taken together, G-Rk1 and G-Rg5 promoted the endogenous apoptotic pathway in MHCC-97H cells by targeting and regulating some critical liver cancer related genes that are involved in the signal pathways associated with cell survival and proliferation.

Preparative separation of gypenoside XVII, ginsenoside Rd2, and notoginsenosides Fe and Fd from Panax notoginseng leaves by countercurrent chromatography and orthogonality evaluation for their separation

The minor ginsenosides with less polarity may have more potent biological activities. Four minor saponins, i.e., gypenoside XVII, ginsenoside Rd2, notoginsenoside Fe, and notoginsenoside Fd, were successfully separated from Panax notoginseng leaves (PNL) after biotransformation by one-step countercurrent chromatography using the biphasic solvent system consisting of n-butanol-ethyl acetate-water (1:4:5, v/v/v). 30 mg of the refined extract of PNL produced 1 mg of gypenoside XVII, 4 mg of notoginsenoside Fe, 2.5 mg of ginsenoside Rd2, and 8.4 mg of notoginsenoside Fd, with purity of 74.9, 95.2, 87.3, and 97.6%, respectively. Besides, orthogonality evaluation for the separation of the four saponins using countercurrent chromatography and liquid chromatography was discussed. Four minor saponins were successfully separated from each other on a preparative scale by countercurrent chromatography from PNL, which will facilitate to provide ample of these minor saponins for further pharmacological studies.

Anti-Metastatic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibition by Ginsenosides

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are proteolytic enzymes which cleave extracellular matrix (ECM) and other substrates. They are deeply involved in both cancer metastasis and human chronic inflammatory diseases such as osteoarthritis and Crohn’s disease. Regulation of MMPs is closely associated with signaling molecules, especially mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), including three representative kinases, extracellular signal regulated kinases (ERK), p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK). Ginseng (Panax sp.) is a plant which has been traditionally used for medicinal applications. Ginsenosides are major metabolites which have potentials to treat various human diseases. In this review, the pharmacological effects of ginsenosides have been rigorously investigated; these include anti-metastatic and anti-inflammatory activities of ginsenosides associated with suppression of MMPs via regulation of various signaling pathways. This will highlight the importance of MMPs as therapeutic targets for anti-metastatic and anti-inflammatory drug development based on ginsenosides.

Anticancer Activities of Ginsenosides, the Main Active Components of Ginseng

Cancer incidence rate has been increasing drastically in recent years. One of the many cancer treatment methods is chemotherapy. Traditional medicine, in the form of complementary and alternative therapy, is actively used to treat cancer, and many herbs and active ingredients of such therapies are being intensely studied to integrate them into modern medicine. Ginseng is traditionally used as a nourishing tonic and for treating various diseases in Asian countries. The therapeutic potential of ginseng in modern medicine has been studied extensively; the main bioactive component of ginseng is ginsenosides, which have gathered attention, particularly for their prospects in the treatment of fatal diseases such as cancer. Ginsenosides displayed their anticancer and antimetastatic properties not only via restricting cancer cell proliferation, viability, invasion, and migration but also by promoting apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and autophagy in several cancers, such as breast, brain, liver, gastric, and lung cancer. Additionally, ginsenosides can work synergistically with already existing cancer therapies. Thus, ginsenosides may be used alone or in combination with other pharmaceutical agents in new therapeutic strategies for cancer. To date however, there is little systematic summary available for the anticancer effects and therapeutic potential of ginsenosides. Therefore, we have reviewed and discussed all available literature in order to facilitate further research of ginsenosides in this manuscript.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as a source of new anticancer drugs

Covering: up to July 2020Drugs derived from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) include both single chemical entities and multi-component preparations. Drugs of both types play a significant role in the healthcare system in China, but are not well-known outside China. The research and development process, the molecular mechanisms of action, and the clinical evaluation associated with some exemplificative anticancer drugs based on TCM are discussed, along with their potential of integration in western medicine.

Identification and confirmation of 14-3-3 ζ as a novel target of ginsenosides in brain tissues

Background

Ginseng can help regulate brain excitability, promote learning and memory, and resist cerebral ischemia in the central nervous system. Ginsenosides are the major effective compounds of Ginseng, but their protein targets in the brain have not been determined.

Methods

We screened proteins that interact with the main components of ginseng (ginsenosides) by affinity chromatography and identified the 14-3-3 ζ protein as a potential target of ginsenosides in brain tissues.

Results

Biolayer interferometry (BLI) analysis showed that 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), a ginseng saponin metabolite, exhibited the highest direct interaction to the 14-3-3 ζ protein. Subsequently, BLI kinetics analysis and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) assay showed that PPD specifically bound to the 14-3-3 ζ protein. The cocrystal structure of the 14-3-3 ζ protein-PPD complex showed that the main interactions occurred between the residues R56, R127, and Y128 of the 14-3-3 ζ protein and a portion of PPD. Moreover, mutating any of the above residues resulted in a significant decrease of affinity between PPD and the 14-3-3 ζ protein.

Conclusion

Our results indicate the 14-3-3 ζ protein is the target of PPD, a ginsenoside metabolite. Crystallographic and mutagenesis studies suggest a direct interaction between PPD and the 14-3-3 ζ protein. This finding can help in the development of small-molecular compounds that bind to the 14-3-3 ζ protein on the basis of the structure of dammarane-type triterpenoid.

Ginsenoside Rh2 represses autophagy to promote cervical cancer cell apoptosis during starvation

Background

Cancer cells through autophagy-mediated recycling to meet the metabolic demands of growth and proliferation. The steroidal saponin 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 effectively inhibits the growth and survival of a variety of tumor cell lines and animal models, but the effects of Rh2 on autophagy remain elusive.

Methods

Cell viability was measured by CCK-8 (cell counting kit-8) assays. Apoptosis, ROS generation and mitochondrial membrane potential were analyzed by flow cytometry. Western blot analyses were used to determine changes in protein levels. Morphology of apoptotic cells and autophagosome accumulation were analyzed by DAPI staining and transmission electron microscopy. Autophagy induction was monitored by acidic vesicular organelle staining, EGFP-LC3 and mRFP-GFP-LC3 transfection. Atg7 siRNA and autophagy regulator was used to assess the effect of autophagy on apoptosis induced by G-Rh2.

Results

In this study, we found that low concentration G-Rh2 attenuated cancer cell growth and induced apoptosis upon serum-free starvation. Caspase 3 inhibitors failed to block apoptosis in G-Rh2-treated cells, indicating a caspase-independent mechanism. G-Rh2-treated cells in serum-deprived conditions showed impaired mitochondrial function, increased release and nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor, but little changes in the mitochondrial and cytoplasmic distributions of cytochrome C. Annexin A2 overexpression in 293T cells inhibited G-Rh2-induced apoptosis under serum-starved conditions. Meanwhile, G-Rh2 reduced lysosomal activity and inhibited the fusion of autophagosome and lysosome, leading to a block of autophagic flux. Knockdown Atg7 significantly inhibited autophagy and triggered AIF-induced apoptosis in serm free condition. The autophagy inducer significantly decreased the apoptosis levels of G-Rh2-treated cells in serum-free conditions.

Conclusions

Under nutrient deficient conditions, G-Rh2 represses autophagy in cervical cancer cells and enhanced apoptosis through an apoptosis-inducing factor mediated pathway.

Roles of plant-derived bioactive compounds and related microRNAs in cancer therapy

Plant-derived bioactive compounds, often called phytochemicals, are active substances extracted from different plants. These bioactive compounds can release therapeutic potential abilities via reducing antitumor drugs side effects or directly killing cancer cells, and others also can adjust cancer initiation and progression via regulating microRNAs (miRNAs) expression, and miRNA can regulate protein-coding expression by restraining translation or degrading target mRNA. A mass of research showed that plant-derived bioactive compounds including tanshinones, astragaloside IV, berberine, ginsenosides and matrine can inhibit tumor growth and metastasis by rescuing aberrant miRNAs expression, which has influence on tumor progression, microenvironment and drug resistance in multifarious cancers. This review aims to provide a novel understanding of plant-derived bioactive compounds targeting miRNAs and shed light on their future clinical applications.

Study on the Selection of the Targets of Esophageal Carcinoma and Interventions of Ginsenosides Based on Network Pharmacology and Bioinformatics

Background

Esophageal carcinoma (ESCA) is not only a threat to people's health but also the sixth most common cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide.

Methods

In this study, the key targets of ESCA are screened through GeneCards and DisGeNET databases combined with the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database (GSE1420 and GSE20347). Then, data associated with ESCA samples are downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database for integrated analysis. Moreover, the effect of epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) expression on the survival of patients with ESCA is evaluated by Kaplan–Meier and Cox analyses. The virtual screening is carried out using a Suflex-Dock molecular docking module. The chemical components, which have been well bound to EpCAM, are screened out based on a total score >5 as a threshold. Ginsenosides and EpCAM are analyzed by LigPlot + v.2.2 software to identify the binding sites.

Results

Four ESCA targets are obtained from GeneCards, DisGeNET, and GEO databases. In this study, it is found that high EpCAM expression is associated with histologic grade, stage, patient age, N classification, T classification, and radiation therapy. The Kaplan–Meier curves for overall survival also show that the higher expression of EpCAM is associated with worse outcomes in patients with ESCA. Univariate and multivariate Cox analyses indicate that EpCAM mRNA expression might be a useful biomarker for ESCA(P < 0.05). Molecular docking technology suggests that ginsenoside Rg3 and ginsenoside Rh2 can easily establish good docking modes and have a high affinity with EpCAM. The 6′-hydroxyl and 6″-hydroxyl on the 3-glycosyl of ginsenoside Rg3 are prone to form hydrogen bonds (Lys151 and Lys221) with the active sites of EpCAM ligand binding domain. The hydroxyl groups on the 12 sites of the ginsenoside Rh2 glycoside framework are found to have hydrogen bonding with Leu240. The formation of hydrogen bonds plays an important role in binding of ginsenoside Rg3 and ginsenoside Rh2 to EpCAM, as well as the stability of EpCAM conformation.

Conclusion

EpCAM may be determined as a potential biomarker for early diagnosis and prognosis of ESCA. Ginsenoside Rg3 and ginsenoside Rh2 have potential antiesophageal cancer activities. This experiment provides a reference for the study of the chemical compositions of ginsenosides in the treatment of esophageal cancer.

Anticancer property of ginsenoside Rh2 from ginseng

Ginseng has been used as a well-known traditional Chinese medicine since ancient times. Ginsenosides as its main active constituents possess a broad scope of pharmacological properties including stimulating immune function, enhancing cardiovascular health, increasing resistance to stress, improving memory and learning, developing social functioning and mental health in normal persons, and chemotherapy. Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2) is one of the major bioactive ginsenosides from Panax ginseng. When applied to cancer treatment, Rh2 not only exhibits the anti-proliferation, anti-invasion, anti-metastasis, induction of cell cycle arrest, promotion of differentiation, and reversal of multi-drug resistance activities against multiple tumor cells, but also alleviates the side effects after chemotherapy or radiotherapy. In the past decades, nearly 200 studies on Rh2 in the treatment of cancer have been published, however no specific reviews have been conducted by now. So the purpose of this review is to provide a systematic summary and analysis of the anticancer effects and the potential mechanisms of Rh2 extracted from Ginseng then give a future prospects about it. In the end of this paper the metabolism and derivatives of Rh2 also have been documented.

Specific Interaction With Human Serum Albumin Reduces Ginsenoside Cytotoxicity in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

Human serum albumin (HSA) is an important component of plasma, which has the functions of maintaining colloid osmotic pressure and capillary membrane stability, promoting blood circulation, and anti-oxidation. Three-dimensional structure of HSA determines its ability to bind and transport hormones and other substances. In this study we examined the interactions between HSA and ginsenoside Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, Rh2, and Rh4, which are the main cytotoxic ginsenosides extracted from red ginseng. Heat transfer generated by the specific interaction between HSA and each ginsenoside was measured using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) assay, which demonstrated that all these 5 ginsenosides bound to HSA with binding constants of 3.25, 1.89, 6.04, 2.07, and 5.17 × 10⁵ M⁻¹, respectively. Molecular docking also displayed that these ginsenosides interact with HSA at different sites of the HSA surface. Importantly, cell viability assay showed that the cytotoxicity of these ginsenosides reduced significantly at the presence of HSA in human vascular endothelial cells (HUVEC). Taken together, this study reveals the mechanism by which these ginsenosides are transported in vivo by not causing damage in vascular endothelium, and also suggests HSA might be an ideal carrier help to transport and execute these ginsenoside functions in human body.

(20S)G-Rh2 Inhibits NF-κB Regulated Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition by Targeting Annexin A2

(1) Background: Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an essential step for cancer metastasis; targeting EMT is an important path for cancer treatment and drug development. NF-κB, an important transcription factor, has been shown to be responsible for cancer metastasis by enhancing the EMT process. Our previous studies showed that (20S)Ginsenoside Rh2 (G-Rh2) inhibits NF-κB activity by targeting Anxa2, but it is still not known whether this targeted inhibition of NF-κB can inhibit the EMT process. (2) Methods: In vivo (20S)G-Rh2-Anxa2 interaction was assessed by cellular thermal shift assay. Protein interaction was determined by immuno-precipitation analysis. NF-κB activity was determined by dual luciferase reporter assay. Gene expression was determined by RT-PCR and immuno-blot. EMT was evaluated by wound healing and Transwell assay and EMT regulating gene expression. (3) Results: Anxa2 interacted with the NF-κB p50 subunit, promoted NF-κB activation, then accelerated mesenchymal-like gene expression and enhanced cell motility; all these cellular processes were inhibited by (20S)G-Rh2. In contrast, these (20S)G-Rh2 effect were completely eliminated by overexpression of Anxa2-K301A, an (20S)G-Rh2-binding-deficient mutant of Anxa2. (4) Conclusion: (20S)G-Rh2 inhibited NF-κB activation and related EMT by targeting Anxa2 in MDA-MB-231 cells.

Naturally occurring anti-cancer compounds: shining from Chinese herbal medicine

Numerous natural products originated from Chinese herbal medicine exhibit anti-cancer activities, including anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, anti-metastatic, anti-angiogenic effects, as well as regulate autophagy, reverse multidrug resistance, balance immunity, and enhance chemotherapy in vitro and in vivo. To provide new insights into the critical path ahead, we systemically reviewed the most recent advances (reported since 2011) on the key compounds with anti-cancer effects derived from Chinese herbal medicine (curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, berberine, artemisinin, ginsenoside Rg3, ursolic acid, silibinin, emodin, triptolide, cucurbitacin B, tanshinone I, oridonin, shikonin, gambogic acid, artesunate, wogonin, β-elemene, and cepharanthine) in scientific databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Medline, Scopus, and Clinical Trials). With a broader perspective, we focused on their recently discovered and/or investigated pharmacological effects, novel mechanism of action, relevant clinical studies, and their innovative applications in combined therapy and immunomodulation. In addition, the present review has extended to describe other promising compounds including dihydroartemisinin, ginsenoside Rh2, compound K, cucurbitacins D, E, I, tanshinone IIA and cryptotanshinone in view of their potentials in cancer therapy. Up to now, the evidence about the immunomodulatory effects and clinical trials of natural anti-cancer compounds from Chinese herbal medicine is very limited, and further research is needed to monitor their immunoregulatory effects and explore their mechanisms of action as modulators of immune checkpoints.

Natural Product Triterpenoids and Their Semi-Synthetic Derivatives with Potential Anticancer Activity

Triterpenoids are distributed widely in higher plants and are of interest because of their structural diversity and broad range of bioactivities. In particular, there is a very large literature on the propensity of a variety of triterpenoids to act as potential anticancer agents. In the present review, the anticancer potential is summarized for naturally occurring triterpenoids and their semi-synthetic derivatives, including examples of lupane-, oleanane-, ursane-, and cucurbitane-type pentacyclic triterpenoids, along with dammarane-type tetracyclic triterpenes including ginsenosides and their sapogenins and dichapetalins, which have been characterized as antitumor leads from higher plants. Preliminary structure-activity relationships and reported mechanisms of the antineoplastic-related activity are included. Prior studies for triterpenoids of plant origin are supportive of additional work being conducted on the more detailed biological and mechanistic evaluation for the progression of this type of natural products as possible cancer chemotherapeutic agents.

Effect of ginsenoside Rh2 on renal apoptosis in cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in vivo

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside Rh₂ (Rh₂), an important ingredient from Panax ginseng, has received much attention due to a range of pharmacological actions.

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to investigate the therapeutic potential Rh₂ on cisplatin (CDDP)-induced nephrotoxicity and to elucidate involved mechanisms.

STUDY DESIGN

An in vivo mice model of CDDP-induced nephrotoxicity was established by a single intraperitoneal injection of CDDP (20 mg/kg) to assess the effects of Rh₂ on renal biochemical parameter, oxidative stress, inflammation tubular cell apoptosis and serum metabolic profiles.

RESULTS

Rh₂ protected against CDDP-induced renal dysfunction and ameliorated CDDP-induced oxidative stress, histopathological damage, inflammation and tubular cell apoptosis in kidney. Rh₂ treatment had significantly increased expression of Bcl-2 and decreased expression of p53, Bax, cytochrome c, caspase-8, caspase-9, and caspase-3 in kidney tissues. Metabolomic analysis identified 29 altered serum metabolites in Rh₂ treatment mice.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that Rh₂ protects against CDDP-induced nephrotoxicity via action on caspase-mediated pathway.

Ginsenoside compound K inhibits nuclear factor-kappa B by targeting Annexin A2

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside compound K(C-K), a major metabolite of ginsenoside, exhibits anticancer activity in various cancer cells and animal models. A cell signaling study has shown that C-K inhibited nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway in human astroglial cells and liver cancer cells. However, the molecular targets of C-K and the initiating events were not elucidated.

METHODS

Interaction between C-K and Annexin A2 was determined by molecular docking and thermal shift assay. HepG2 cells were treated with C-K, followed by a luciferase reporter assay for NF-кB, immunofluorescence imaging for the subcellular localization of Annexin A2 and NF-кB p50 subunit, coimmunoprecipitation of Annexin A2 and NF-кB p50 subunit, and both cell viability assay and plate clone formation assay to determine the cell viability.

RESULTS

Both molecular docking and thermal shift assay positively confirmed the interaction between Annexin A2 and C-K. This interaction prevented the interaction between Annexin A2 and NF-кB p50 subunit and their nuclear colocalization, which attenuated the activation of NF-кB and the expression of its downstream genes, followed by the activation of caspase 9 and 3. In addition, the overexpression of Annexin A2-K320A, a C-K binding-deficient mutant of Annexin A2, rendered cells to resist C-K treatment, indicating that C-K exerts its cytotoxic activity mainly by targeting Annexin A2.

CONCLUSION

This study for the first time revealed a cellular target of C-K and the molecular mechanism for its anticancer activity.

Ginsenoside Rg5 induces apoptosis in human esophageal cancer cells through the phosphoinositide‑3 kinase/protein kinase B signaling pathway

The role of ginsenoside in the prevention of cancer has been well established. Ginsenoside Rg5 is one of the main components isolated from red ginseng, which has been demonstrated to have anti-tumor effects by inhibiting cell proliferation and causing DNA damage. However, the role of ginsenoside Rg5 and its molecular mechanisms remain unclear in human esophageal cancer. In the present study, Rg5 was investigated as a novel drug for the chemotherapy of esophageal cancer in in vitro experiments. Esophageal cancer Eca109 cells were exposed to various concentrations of ginsenoside Rg5 (0–32 µΜ) for 24 h. Subsequent cell proliferation assays demonstrated that treatment with ginsenoside Rg5 resulted in the dose-dependent inhibition of proliferation, while a significant increase in apoptotic rate and increased activities of caspase-3, −8 and −9 were observed. In addition, the mitochondrial membrane potential was decreased and the cytoplasmic free calcium level increased following treatment with ginsenoside Rg5. Furthermore, the expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 and phosphorylated-protein kinase B (p-Akt) decreased. The specific phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K) inhibitor LY294002 promoted this effect, while insulin-like growth factor-1, a specific PI3K activator, inhibited this action. Taken together, the results suggested that ginsenoside Rg5 may have a tumor-suppressive effect on esophageal cancer by promoting apoptosis and may be associated with the downregulation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Pharmacokinetic and Metabolism Studies of 12-Riboside-Pseudoginsengenin DQ by UPLC-MS/MS and UPLC-QTOF-MSE

Pharmacokinetic and metabolism studies of 12-riboside-pseudoginsengenin DQ (RPDQ), a novel ginsenoside with an anti-cancer effect, were carried out, aiming at discussing the characteristics of the ginsenoside with glycosylation site at C-12. In the pharmacokinetic analysis, we developed and validated a method by UPLC-MS to quantify RPDQ in rat plasma. In the range of 5–1000 ng/mL, the assay was linear (R² > 0.9966), with the LLOQ (lower limit of quantification) being 5 ng/mL. The LOD (limit of detection) was 1.5 ng/mL. The deviations of intra-day and inter-day, expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD), were ≤ 3.51% and ≤ 5.41% respectively. The accuracy, expressed as relative error (RE), was in the range –8.82~3.47% and –5.61~2.87%, respectively. The recoveries were in the range 85.66~92.90%. The method was then applied to a pharmacokinetic study in rats intragastrically administrated with 6, 12, and 24 mg/kg RPDQ. The results showed that RPDQ exhibited slow oral absorption (T_max = 7.0 h, 7.5 h, and 7.0 h, respectively), low elimination (t_1/2 = 12.59 h, 12.83 h, and 13.74 h, respectively) and poor absolute bioavailability (5.55, 5.15, and 6.08%, respectively). Moreover, the investigation of metabolites were carried out by UPLC-QTOF-MS. Thirteen metabolites of RPDQ were characterized from plasma, bile, urine, and feces of rats. Some metabolic pathways, including oxidation, acetylation, hydration, reduction, hydroxylation, glycine conjugation, sulfation, phosphorylation, glucuronidation, glutathione conjugation, and deglycosylation, were profiled. In general, both the rapid quantitative method and a good understanding of the characteristics of RPDQ in vivo were provided in this study.

20(S)-Ginsenoside Rh2 Induce the Apoptosis and Autophagy in U937 and K562 Cells

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) are common leukemia in adults. 20(S)-GRh2 is an important bioactive substance that is present in Panax ginseng. However, there are no investigations that deal with the comparison of apoptosis, the occurrence of autophagy, and the relationship between apoptosis and autophagy after being treated with 20(S)-GRh2 in AML and CML. In this study, we explored the effect of 20(S)-GRh2 on the AML and CML (U937 and K562). Fluorescence microscopy, CCK-8, Quantitative realtime PCR, Western blot, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and flow cytometric analysis were used to detect the occurrence of cell proliferation inhibition, apoptosis, and autophagy. By using the above methods, it was determined that apoptosis induced by 20(S)-GRh2 was more obvious in K562 than U937 cells and 20(S)-GRh2 could generate autophagy in K562 and U937 cells. When pretreated by a specific inhibitor of autophagy, (3-methyladenine), the 20(S)-GRh2-induced apoptosis was enhanced, which indicated that 20(S)-GRh2-induced autophagy may protect U937 and K562 cells from undergoing apoptotic cell death. On the other hand, pretreated by an apoptosis suppressor (Z-VAD-FMK), it greatly induced the autophagy and partially prevented 20(S)-GRh2 induced apoptosis. This phenomenon indicated that 20(S)-GRh2-induced autophagy may serve as a survival mechanism and apoptosis and autophagy could act as partners to induce cell death in a cooperative manner. These findings may provide a rationale for future clinical application by using 20(S)-GRh2 combined autophagy inhibitors for AML and CML.

Converting ginsenosides from stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng by microwave processing and improving their anticoagulant and anticancer activities

A microwave processing technology was applied to degrade saponins from the stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng. Six transformation products (1–6), named 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg₃ (1), 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg₃ (2), notoginsenoside SFt₃ (3), ginsenoside Rk₁ (4), ginsenoside Rg₅ (5), and 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh₂ (6) were isolated and identified from a microwave processed extract of the stems and leaves of P. notoginseng (MEL). This transformation method was also applied for producing the minor ginsenosides in flowers, seeds and pedicels of P. notoginseng. The extract and compounds 1–6 in MEL were evaluated in vitro for anticancer and anticoagulant activities. The results showed that the MEL extract and transformation products had outstanding inhibitory activities against human cervical cancer Hela and lung cancer A549 cells. The strongest inhibitory effect was observed for 20(S)-Rh₂ (6) with an IC₅₀ value of 8.23 μM in Hela cells. Moreover, the results showed that the MEL significantly prolonged prothrombin time in a concentration-dependent manner. The anticoagulant effect of the MEL improved with the increased contents of Rk₁, Rg₅, and SFt₃.

A microwave processing technology was used to produce anticoagulant and anticancer compounds from the stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng.