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Pujic P, Carro L, Fournier P, Armengaud J, Miotello G, Dumont N, Bourgeois C, Saupin X, Jame P, Selak GV, Alloisio N, Normand P. Frankia alni Carbonic Anhydrase Regulates Cytoplasmic pH of Nitrogen-Fixing Vesicles. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119162. [PMID: 37298114 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
A phyloprofile of Frankia genomes was carried out to identify those genes present in symbiotic strains of clusters 1, 1c, 2 and 3 and absent in non-infective strains of cluster 4. At a threshold of 50% AA identity, 108 genes were retrieved. Among these were known symbiosis-associated genes such as nif (nitrogenase), and genes which are not know as symbiosis-associated genes such as can (carbonic anhydrase, CAN). The role of CAN, which supplies carbonate ions necessary for carboxylases and acidifies the cytoplasm, was thus analyzed by staining cells with pH-responsive dyes; assaying for CO2 levels in N-fixing propionate-fed cells (that require a propionate-CoA carboxylase to yield succinate-CoA), fumarate-fed cells and N-replete propionate-fed cells; conducting proteomics on N-fixing fumarate and propionate-fed cells and direct measurement of organic acids in nodules and in roots. The interiors of both in vitro and nodular vesicles were found to be at a lower pH than that of hyphae. CO2 levels in N2-fixing propionate-fed cultures were lower than in N-replete ones. Proteomics of propionate-fed cells showed carbamoyl-phosphate synthase (CPS) as the most overabundant enzyme relative to fumarate-fed cells. CPS combines carbonate and ammonium in the first step of the citrulline pathway, something which would help manage acidity and NH4+. Nodules were found to have sizeable amounts of pyruvate and acetate in addition to TCA intermediates. This points to CAN reducing the vesicles' pH to prevent the escape of NH3 and to control ammonium assimilation by GS and GOGAT, two enzymes that work in different ways in vesicles and hyphae. Genes with related functions (carboxylases, biotin operon and citrulline-aspartate ligase) appear to have undergone decay in non-symbiotic lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petar Pujic
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRAE, UMRA1418, Cedex, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Lorena Carro
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRAE, UMRA1418, Cedex, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
- Departamento de Microbiología y Genética, Facultad de CC Agrarias y Ambientales, Universidad de Salamanca, Plaza Doctores de la Reina, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Pascale Fournier
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRAE, UMRA1418, Cedex, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Jean Armengaud
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 30200 Bagnols-sur-Cèze, France
| | - Guylaine Miotello
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 30200 Bagnols-sur-Cèze, France
| | | | - Caroline Bourgeois
- Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, Université de Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 5 rue de la Doua, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Xavier Saupin
- Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, Université de Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 5 rue de la Doua, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Patrick Jame
- Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, Université de Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 5 rue de la Doua, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Gabriela Vuletin Selak
- Institute for Adriatic Crops and Karst Reclamation, Put Duilova 11, 21000 Split, Croatia
- Centre of Excellence for Biodiversity and Molecular Plant Breeding (CoE CroP-BioDiv), Svetošimunska Cesta 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Nicole Alloisio
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRAE, UMRA1418, Cedex, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Philippe Normand
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRAE, UMRA1418, Cedex, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
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Bhadrecha P, Singh S, Dwibedi V. 'A plant's major strength in rhizosphere': the plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. Arch Microbiol 2023; 205:165. [PMID: 37012531 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-023-03502-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
Abstract
Human activities, industrialization and civilization have deteriorated the environment which eventually has led to alarming effects on plants and animals by heightened amounts of chemical pollutants and heavy metals in the environment, which create abiotic stress. Environmental conditions like drought, salinity, diminished macro-and micro-nutrients also contribute in abiotic stress, resulting in decrement of survival and growth of plants. Presence of pathogenic and competitive microorganisms, as well as pests lead to biotic stress and a plant alone can not defend itself. Thankfully, nature has rendered plant's rhizosphere with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria which maintain an allelopathic relationship with host plant to defend the plant and let it flourish in abiotic as well as biotic stress situations. This review discusses the mechanisms behind increase in plant growth via various direct and indirect traits expressed by associated microorganisms in the rhizosphere, along with their current scenario and promising future for sustainable agriculture. It also gives details of ten such bacterial species, viz. Acetobacter, Agrobacterium, Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Enterobacter and Frankia, whose association with the host plants is famed for enhancing plant's growth and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Bhadrecha
- University Institute of Biotechnology, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, 140413, India
| | - Shilpy Singh
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, School of Sciences, Noida International University, Gautam Budh Nagar, Gautam Budh Nagar, Uttar Pradesh, 203201, India
| | - Vagish Dwibedi
- University Institute of Biotechnology, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, 140413, India.
- Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Department of Biotechnology, 147004, PATIALA, India.
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Caro-Astorga J, Lee KY, Ellis T. Increasing bacterial cellulose compression resilience with glycerol or PEG400 for robuster engineered living materials. CARBOHYDRATE POLYMER TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carpta.2022.100245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Hernández-Fernández G, Galán B, Carmona M, Castro L, García JL. Transcriptional response of the xerotolerant Arthrobacter sp. Helios strain to PEG-induced drought stress. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1009068. [PMID: 36312951 PMCID: PMC9608346 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1009068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A new bacterial strain has been isolated from the microbiome of solar panels and classified as Arthrobacter sp. Helios according to its 16S rDNA, positioning it in the “Arthrobacter citreus group.” The isolated strain is highly tolerant to desiccation, UV radiation and to the presence of metals and metalloids, while it is motile and capable of growing in a variety of carbon sources. These characteristics, together with observation that Arthrobacter sp. Helios seems to be permanently prepared to handle the desiccation stress, make it very versatile and give it a great potential to use it as a biotechnological chassis. The new strain genome has been sequenced and its analysis revealed that it is extremely well poised to respond to environmental stresses. We have analyzed the transcriptional response of this strain to PEG6000-mediated arid stress to investigate the desiccation resistance mechanism. Most of the induced genes participate in cellular homeostasis such as ion and osmolyte transport and iron scavenging. Moreover, the greatest induction has been found in a gene cluster responsible for biogenic amine catabolism, suggesting their involvement in the desiccation resistance mechanism in this bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Hernández-Fernández
- Department of Microbial and Plant Biotechnology, Margarita Salas Centre for Biological Research-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Beatriz Galán
- Department of Microbial and Plant Biotechnology, Margarita Salas Centre for Biological Research-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Carmona
- Department of Microbial and Plant Biotechnology, Margarita Salas Centre for Biological Research-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Castro
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Luis García
- Department of Microbial and Plant Biotechnology, Margarita Salas Centre for Biological Research-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- *Correspondence: José Luis García,
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Chetri SPK, Rahman Z, Thomas L, Lal R, Gour T, Agarwal LK, Vashishtha A, Kumar S, Kumar G, Kumar R, Sharma K. Paradigms of actinorhizal symbiosis under the regime of global climatic changes: New insights and perspectives. J Basic Microbiol 2022; 62:764-778. [PMID: 35638879 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.202200043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Nitrogen occurs as inert and inaccessible dinitrogen gaseous form (N2 ) in the atmosphere. Biological nitrogen fixation is a chief process that makes this dinitrogen (N2 ) accessible and bioavailable in the form of ammonium (NH4 + ) ions. The key organisms to fix nitrogen are certain prokaryotes, called diazotrophs either in the free-living form or establishing significant mutual relationships with a variety of plants. On such examples is ~95-100 MY old incomparable symbiosis between dicotyledonous trees and a unique actinobacterial diazotroph in diverse ecosystems. In this association, the root of the certain dicotyledonous tree (~25 genera and 225 species) belonging to three different taxonomic orders, Fagales, Cucurbitales, and Rosales (FaCuRo) known as actinorhizal trees can host a diazotroph, Frankia of order Frankiales. Frankia is gram-positive, branched, filamentous, sporulating, and free-living soil actinobacterium. It resides in the specialized, multilobed, and coralloid organs (lateral roots but without caps), the root nodules of actinorhizal tress. This review aims to provide systematic information on the distribution and the phylogenetic diversity of hosts from FaCuRo and their micro-endosymbionts (Frankia spp.), colonization mechanisms, and signaling pathways. We also aim to provide details on developmental and physiological imperatives for gene regulation and functional genomics of symbiosis, phenomenal restoration ecology, influences of contemporary global climatic changes, and anthropogenic impacts on plant-Frankia interactions for the functioning of ecosystems and the biosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zeeshanur Rahman
- Department of Botany, Zakir Husain Delhi College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Lebin Thomas
- Department of Botany, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Ratan Lal
- Department of Botany, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Tripti Gour
- Department of Botany, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Lokesh Kumar Agarwal
- Department of Chemistry, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Akanksha Vashishtha
- Department of Plant Protection, CCS University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sachin Kumar
- Department of Botany, Shri Venkateshwara College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Gaurav Kumar
- Department of Environmental Studies, PGDAV College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Rajesh Kumar
- Department of Botany, Hindu College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Kuldeep Sharma
- Department of Botany, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
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Pujic P, Alloisio N, Miotello G, Armengaud J, Abrouk D, Fournier P, Normand P. The Proteogenome of Symbiotic Frankia alni in Alnus glutinosa Nodules. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10030651. [PMID: 35336227 PMCID: PMC8951365 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10030651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Omics are the most promising approaches to investigate microbes for which no genetic tools exist such as the nitrogen-fixing symbiotic Frankia. A proteogenomic analysis of symbiotic Frankia alni was done by comparing those proteins more and less abundant in Alnus glutinosa nodules relative to N2-fixing pure cultures with propionate as the carbon source. There were 250 proteins that were significantly overabundant in nodules at a fold change (FC) ≥ 2 threshold, and 1429 with the same characteristics in in vitro nitrogen-fixing pure culture. Nitrogenase, SuF (Fe–Su biogenesis) and hopanoid lipids synthesis determinants were the most overabundant proteins in symbiosis. Nitrogenase was found to constitute 3% of all Frankia proteins in nodules. Sod (superoxide dismutase) was overabundant, indicating a continued oxidative stress, while Kats (catalase) were not. Several transporters were overabundant including one for dicarboxylates and one for branched amino acids. The present results confirm the centrality of nitrogenase in the actinorhizal symbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petar Pujic
- Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, UMR5557, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon; INRA, UMR1418, 7330 Villeurbanne, France; (N.A.); (D.A.); (P.F.)
- Correspondence: (P.P.); (P.N.)
| | - Nicole Alloisio
- Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, UMR5557, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon; INRA, UMR1418, 7330 Villeurbanne, France; (N.A.); (D.A.); (P.F.)
| | - Guylaine Miotello
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), CEA, INRAE, Université Paris-Saclay, SPI, 30200 Bagnols sur Cèze, France; (G.M.); (J.A.)
| | - Jean Armengaud
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), CEA, INRAE, Université Paris-Saclay, SPI, 30200 Bagnols sur Cèze, France; (G.M.); (J.A.)
| | - Danis Abrouk
- Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, UMR5557, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon; INRA, UMR1418, 7330 Villeurbanne, France; (N.A.); (D.A.); (P.F.)
| | - Pascale Fournier
- Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, UMR5557, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon; INRA, UMR1418, 7330 Villeurbanne, France; (N.A.); (D.A.); (P.F.)
| | - Philippe Normand
- Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, UMR5557, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon; INRA, UMR1418, 7330 Villeurbanne, France; (N.A.); (D.A.); (P.F.)
- Correspondence: (P.P.); (P.N.)
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Ochetophila-infective Frankia colonization patterns of volcanic ash in Patagonia. Symbiosis 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-021-00820-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Pujic P, Alloisio N, Fournier P, Roche D, Sghaier H, Miotello G, Armengaud J, Berry AM, Normand P. Omics of the early molecular dialogue between Frankia alni and Alnus glutinosa and the cellulase synton. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:3328-3345. [PMID: 30917411 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The early Frankia-Alnus symbiotic molecular exchanges were analyzed in detail by protein and RNA omics. For this, Frankia cells were placed in the presence of Alnus roots but separated by a dialysis membrane for 64 h. The bacterial cells were then harvested and analyzed by high-throughput proteomics and transcriptomics (RNA-seq). The most upregulated gene clusters were found to be the potassium transporter operon kdp and an ABC transporter operon of uncharacterized function. The most upregulated proteins were found to be acyl dehydrogenases and the potassium transporter Kdp. These suggest a preadaptation to the impending stresses linked to the penetration into isotonic host tissues and a possible rearrangement of the membrane. Another cluster among the 60 most upregulated ones that comprised two cellulases and a cellulose synthase was conserved among the Frankia and other actinobacteria such as Streptomyces. Cellulase activity was detected on CMC all along the length of the root but not away from it. Frankia alni ACN14a was found to be unable to respire or grow on glucose as sole carbon source. The cellulose synthase was found active at the tip of hyphae in response to Alnus root exudates, resulting in a calcofluor stained tip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petar Pujic
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMRA1418, Cedex 69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Nicole Alloisio
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMRA1418, Cedex 69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Pascale Fournier
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMRA1418, Cedex 69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - David Roche
- LABGeM, Génomique Métabolique, Genoscope, Institut François Jacob, CEA, CNRS, Univ Evry, Université Paris-Saclay, 91057 Evry, France
| | - Haitham Sghaier
- National Center for Nuclear Sciences and Technology, Sidi Thabet Technopark, Ariana, Tunisia
| | - Guylaine Miotello
- Laboratoire Innovations technologiques pour la Détection et le Diagnostic (Li2D), Service de Pharmacologie et Immunoanalyse (SPI), CEA, INRA, F-30207 Bagnols sur Cèze, France
| | - Jean Armengaud
- Laboratoire Innovations technologiques pour la Détection et le Diagnostic (Li2D), Service de Pharmacologie et Immunoanalyse (SPI), CEA, INRA, F-30207 Bagnols sur Cèze, France
| | - Alison M Berry
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Philippe Normand
- Ecologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMRA1418, Cedex 69622, Villeurbanne, France
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Béthencourt L, Boubakri H, Taib N, Normand P, Armengaud J, Fournier P, Brochier-Armanet C, Herrera-Belaroussi A. Comparative genomics and proteogenomics highlight key molecular players involved in Frankia sporulation. Res Microbiol 2019; 170:202-213. [PMID: 31018159 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Sporulation is a microbial adaptive strategy to resist inhospitable conditions for vegetative growth and to disperse to colonise more favourable environments. This microbial trait is widespread in Actinobacteria. Among them, Frankia strains are able to differentiate sporangia in pure culture, while others can sporulate even when in symbiosis with sporulation occurring within host cells. The molecular determinants controlling Frankia sporulation have not been yet described. In order to highlight, for the first time, the molecular players potentially involved in Frankia sporulation, we conducted (i) a comparison of protein contents between Frankia spores and hyphae and (ii) a comparative genomic analysis of Frankia proteomes with sporulating and non-sporulating Actinobacteria. Among the main results, glycogen-metabolism related proteins, as well as oxidative stress response and protease-like proteins were overdetected in hyphae, recalling lytic processes that allow Streptomyces cells to erect sporogenic hyphae. Several genes encoding transcriptional regulators, including GntR-like, appeared up-regulated in spores, as well as tyrosinase, suggesting their potential role in mature spore metabolism. Finally, our results highlighted new proteins potentially involved in Frankia sporulation, including a pyrophosphate-energized proton pump and YaaT, described as involved in the phosphorelay allowing sporulation in Bacillus subtilis, leading us to discuss the role of a phosphorelay in Frankia sporulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorine Béthencourt
- Écologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMR 1418, Villeurbanne, 69622 Cedex, France
| | - Hasna Boubakri
- Écologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMR 1418, Villeurbanne, 69622 Cedex, France
| | - Najwa Taib
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5558, Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Évolutive, 43 bd du 11 novembre 1918, F-69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Philippe Normand
- Écologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMR 1418, Villeurbanne, 69622 Cedex, France
| | - Jean Armengaud
- Laboratoire Innovations Technologiques pour la Détection et le Diagnostic (Li2D), Service de Pharmacologie et Immunoanalyse (SPI), CEA, INRA, Bagnols sur Cèze, F-30207, France
| | - Pascale Fournier
- Écologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMR 1418, Villeurbanne, 69622 Cedex, France
| | - Céline Brochier-Armanet
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5558, Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Évolutive, 43 bd du 11 novembre 1918, F-69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Aude Herrera-Belaroussi
- Écologie Microbienne, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 5557, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INRA, UMR 1418, Villeurbanne, 69622 Cedex, France.
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