1
|
Ashrafee A, Yashfe SMS, Khan NS, Islam MT, Azam MG, Arafat MT. Design of experiment approach to identify the dominant geometrical feature of left coronary artery influencing atherosclerosis. Biomed Phys Eng Express 2024; 10:035008. [PMID: 38430572 DOI: 10.1088/2057-1976/ad2f59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/04/2024]
Abstract
Background and Objective. Coronary artery geometry heavily influences local hemodynamics, potentially leading to atherosclerosis. Consequently, the unique geometrical configuration of an individual by birth can be associated with future risk of atherosclerosis. Although current researches focus on exploring the relationship between local hemodynamics and coronary artery geometry, this study aims to identify the order of influence of the geometrical features through systematic experiments, which can reveal the dominant geometrical feature for future risk assessment.Methods. According to Taguchi's method of design of experiment (DoE), the left main stem (LMS) length (lLMS), curvature (kLMS), diameter (dLMS) and the bifurcation angle between left anterior descending (LAD) and left circumflex (LCx) artery (αLAD-LCx) of two reconstructed patient-specific left coronary arteries (LCA) were varied in three levels to create L9 orthogonal array. Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations with physiological boundary conditions were performed on the resulting eighteen LCA models. Average helicity intensity (h2) and relative atheroprone area (RAA) of near-wall hemodynamic descriptors were analyzed.Results. The proximal LAD (LADproximal) was identified to be the most atheroprone region of the left coronary artery due to higherh2,large RAA of time averaged wall shear stress (TAWSS < 0.4 Pa), oscillatory shear index (OSI ∼ 0.5) and relative residence time (RRT > 4.17 Pa-1). In both patient-specific cases, based onh2and TAWSS,dlmsis the dominant geometric parameter while based on OSI and RRT,αLAD-LCxis the dominant one influencing hemodynamic condition in proximal LAD (p< 0.05). Based on RRT, the rank of the geometrical factors is:αLAD-LCx>dLMS>lLMS>kLMS, indicating thatαLAD-LCxis the most dominant geometrical factor affecting hemodynamics at proximal LAD which may influence atherosclerosis.Conclusion. The proposed identification of the rank of geometrical features of LCA and the dominant feature may assist clinicians in predicting the possibility of atherosclerosis, of an individual, long before it will occur. This study can further be translated to be used to rank the influence of several arterial geometrical features at different arterial locations to explore detailed relationships between the arterial geometrical features and local hemodynamics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adiba Ashrafee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka - 1205, Bangladesh
| | - Syed Muiz Sadat Yashfe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka - 1205, Bangladesh
| | - Nusrat S Khan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka - 1205, Bangladesh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
| | - Md Tariqul Islam
- Department of Radiology and Imaging, Sheikh Hasina National Institute of Burn & Plastic Surgery, Dhaka - 1205, Bangladesh
| | - M G Azam
- Department of Cardiology, National Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases (NICVD), Dhaka - 1207, Bangladesh
| | - M Tarik Arafat
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka - 1205, Bangladesh
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sonmez F, Karagoz S, Yildirim O, Firat I. Experimental and numerical investigation of the stenosed coronary artery taken from the clinical setting and modeled in terms of hemodynamics. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL METHODS IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 2024; 40:e3793. [PMID: 37975163 DOI: 10.1002/cnm.3793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
The study was carried out to investigate the effect of the artery with different pulse values and stenosis rates on the pressure drop, the peristaltic pump outlet pressure, fractional flow reserve (FFR) and most importantly the amount of power consumed by the peristaltic pump. For this purpose, images taken from the clinical environment were produced as models (10 mm inlet diameter) with 0% and 70% percent areal stenosis rates (PSR) on a three-dimensional (3D) printer. In the experimental system, pure water was used as the fluid at 54, 84, 114, 132, and 168 bpm pulse values. In addition, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyzes of the test region were performed using experimental boundary conditions with the help of ANSYS-Fluent software. The findings showed that as PSR increases in the arteries, the pressure drop in the stenosis region increases and this amount increases dramatically with increasing effort. An increase of approximately 40% was observed in the pump outlet pressure value from 54 bpm to 168 bpm in the PSR 0% model and 51% increase in the PSR 70% model. It has been observed that the pump does more work to overcome the increased pressure difference due to increased pulse rate and PSR. With the effect of contraction, the power consumption of the pump increased from 9.2% for 54 bpm to 13.8% for 168 bpm. In both models, the Wall Shear Stress (WSS) increased significantly. WSS increased abruptly in the stenosis and arcuate regions, while sudden decreases were observed in the flow separation region.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fatin Sonmez
- Artvin Vocational School, Artvin Coruh University, Artvin, Turkey
| | - Sendogan Karagoz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Orhan Yildirim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Ilker Firat
- Ilic Dursun Yildirim Vocational School, Erzincan Binali Yildirim University, Erzincan, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Robert Bateman A, Alexander Bateman G, Barber T. Investigating the hemodynamic implications of triangular cross-sectioned superior sagittal sinus vessels and the errors associated with idealised modelling. J Biomech 2023; 149:111507. [PMID: 36868042 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2023.111507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
The superior sagittal sinus (SSS) is a blood vessel that is often observed to be approximately triangular in cross-section, due to how the venous wall attaches to the surrounding tissue. Despite this, the vessel has been assumed to be circular, when models are generated without patient-specific data. In this study, the differences between the cerebral hemodynamics of one circular, three triangular and five patient-specific cross-sectional models of a SSS were conducted. The errors associated with using circular cross-sectioned flow extensions were also determined. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models were generated from these geometries, with a population mean transient blood flow profile incorporated. The maximal helicity of the fluid flow was found to be elevated in the triangular cross-section, compared to the circular, with a higher wall shear stress (WSS) observed over a smaller, more concentrated region on the posterior sinus wall. The errors associated with using a circular cross-section were detailed, with the cross-sectional area appearing to have a greater influence on the hemodynamic parameters than the triangularity or circularity of the cross-section. This highlighted the importance of exhibiting caution when incorporating idealised modelling, especially when commenting on the true hemodynamics of these models. Errors were also found to be induced when using a circular cross-sectioned flow extension, for a geometry which was non-circular. This study highlights the importance of understanding the human anatomy when modelling blood vessels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Grant Alexander Bateman
- Department of Medical Imaging, John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, Australia; Newcastle University Faculty of Health, Callaghan Campus, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Tracie Barber
- School of Mechanical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Katakia YT, Kanduri S, Bhattacharyya R, Ramanathan S, Nigam I, Kuncharam BVR, Majumder S. Angular difference in human coronary artery governs endothelial cell structure and function. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1044. [PMID: 36183045 PMCID: PMC9526720 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04014-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood vessel branch points exhibiting oscillatory/turbulent flow and lower wall shear stress (WSS) are the primary sites of atherosclerosis development. Vascular endothelial functions are essentially dependent on these tangible biomechanical forces including WSS. Herein, we explored the influence of blood vessel bifurcation angles on hemodynamic alterations and associated changes in endothelial function. We generated computer-aided design of a branched human coronary artery followed by 3D printing such designs with different bifurcation angles. Through computational fluid dynamics analysis, we observed that a larger branching angle generated more complex turbulent/oscillatory hemodynamics to impart minimum WSS at branching points. Through the detection of biochemical markers, we recorded significant alteration in eNOS, ICAM1, and monocyte attachment in EC grown in microchannel having 60o vessel branching angle which correlated with the lower WSS. The present study highlights the importance of blood vessel branching angle as one of the crucial determining factors in governing atherogenic-endothelial dysfunction. In silico and in vitro investigations reveal angular differences in the blood vessel branching points differentially alter the hemodynamics to impact endothelial structure and function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yash T Katakia
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani Campus, Pilani, India
| | - Satyadevan Kanduri
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani Campus, Pilani, India
| | - Ritobrata Bhattacharyya
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani Campus, Pilani, India
| | - Srinandini Ramanathan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani Campus, Pilani, India
| | - Ishan Nigam
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani Campus, Pilani, India
| | | | - Syamantak Majumder
- Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS), Pilani Campus, Pilani, India.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mendez PL, Obendorf L, Jatzlau J, Burdzinski W, Reichenbach M, Nageswaran V, Haghikia A, Stangl V, Hiepen C, Knaus P. Atheroprone fluid shear stress-regulated ALK1-Endoglin-SMAD signaling originates from early endosomes. BMC Biol 2022; 20:210. [PMID: 36171573 PMCID: PMC9520843 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-022-01396-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fluid shear stress enhances endothelial SMAD1/5 signaling via the BMP9-bound ALK1 receptor complex supported by the co-receptor Endoglin. While moderate SMAD1/5 activation is required to maintain endothelial quiescence, excessive SMAD1/5 signaling promotes endothelial dysfunction. Increased BMP signaling participates in endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition and inflammation culminating in vascular diseases such as atherosclerosis. While the function of Endoglin has so far been described under picomolar concentrations of BMP9 and short-term shear application, we investigated Endoglin under physiological BMP9 and long-term pathophysiological shear conditions. RESULTS We report here that knock-down of Endoglin leads to exacerbated SMAD1/5 phosphorylation and atheroprone gene expression profile in HUVECs sheared for 24 h. Making use of the ligand-trap ALK1-Fc, we furthermore show that this increase is dependent on BMP9/10. Mechanistically, we reveal that long-term exposure of ECs to low laminar shear stress leads to enhanced Endoglin expression and endocytosis of Endoglin in Caveolin-1-positive early endosomes. In these endosomes, we could localize the ALK1-Endoglin complex, labeled BMP9 as well as SMAD1, highlighting Caveolin-1 vesicles as a SMAD signaling compartment in cells exposed to low atheroprone laminar shear stress. CONCLUSIONS We identified Endoglin to be essential in preventing excessive activation of SMAD1/5 under physiological flow conditions and Caveolin-1-positive early endosomes as a new flow-regulated signaling compartment for BMP9-ALK1-Endoglin signaling axis in atheroprone flow conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul-Lennard Mendez
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany.,International Max-Planck Research School for Biology and Computation, Berlin, Germany
| | - Leon Obendorf
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jerome Jatzlau
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany
| | - Wiktor Burdzinski
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin School for Regenerative Therapies, Berlin, Germany
| | - Maria Reichenbach
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vanasa Nageswaran
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Kardiologie, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Arash Haghikia
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Klinik für Kardiologie, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Medizinische Klinik für Kardiologie und Angiologie, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - Verena Stangl
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Hiepen
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany.,Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Westphalian University of Applied Sciences, Recklinghausen, Germany
| | - Petra Knaus
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute for Chemistry and Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany. .,International Max-Planck Research School for Biology and Computation, Berlin, Germany. .,Berlin School for Regenerative Therapies, Berlin, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Impact of Enhanced Phagocytosis of Glycated Erythrocytes on Human Endothelial Cell Functions. Cells 2022; 11:cells11142200. [PMID: 35883644 PMCID: PMC9351689 DOI: 10.3390/cells11142200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes is associated with a high mortality rate due to vascular complications. Chronic hyperglycemia in diabetes leads to enhanced oxidative stress and glycation. Here, we explored the impact of glycation on human erythrocyte characteristics and capacity to affect endothelial cell function following erythrophagocytosis. Native and glucose-mediated glycated erythrocytes were prepared and characterized in terms of structural and deformability modifications. Erythrocyte preparations were tested for their binding and phagocytosis capacity as well as the potential functional consequences on human endothelial cell lines and primary cultures. Oxidative modifications were found to be enhanced in glycated erythrocytes after determination of their deformability, advanced glycation end-product content and eryptosis. Erythrophagocytosis by endothelial cells was significantly increased when incubated in the presence of glycated erythrocytes. In addition, higher iron accumulation, oxidative stress and impaired endothelial cell permeability were evidenced in cells previously incubated with glycated erythrocytes. When cultured under flow conditions, cellular integrity was disrupted by glycated erythrocytes at microvessel bifurcations, areas particularly prone to vascular complications. This study provides important new data on the impact of glycation on the structure of erythrocytes and their ability to alter endothelial cell function. Increased erythrophagocytosis may have a deleterious impact on endothelial cell function with adverse consequences on diabetic vascular complications.
Collapse
|
7
|
Haemodynamic-dependent arrest of circulating tumour cells at large blood vessel bifurcations as new model for metastasis. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23231. [PMID: 34853364 PMCID: PMC8636484 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02482-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Homing of circulating tumour cells (CTC) at distant sites represents a critical event in metastasis dissemination. In addition to physical entrapment, probably responsible of the majority of the homing events, the vascular system provides with geometrical factors that govern the flow biomechanics and impact on the fate of the CTC. Here we mathematically explored the distribution of velocities and the corresponding streamlines at the bifurcations of large blood vessel and characterized an area of low-velocity at the carina of bifurcation that favours the residence of CTC. In addition to this fluid physics effect, the adhesive capabilities of the CTC provide with a biological competitive advantage resulting in a marginal but systematic arrest as evidenced by dynamic in vitro recirculation in Y-microchannels and by perfusion in in vivo mice models. Our results also demonstrate that viscosity, as a main determinant of the Reynolds number that define flow biomechanics, may be modulated to limit or impair CTC accumulation at the bifurcation of blood vessels, in agreement with the apparent positive effect observed in the clinical setting by anticoagulants in advanced oncology disease.
Collapse
|
8
|
Nagargoje M, Gupta R. Effect of asymmetry on the flow behavior in an idealized arterial bifurcation. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 2020; 23:232-247. [DOI: 10.1080/10255842.2019.1711068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Nagargoje
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Raghvendra Gupta
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Genkel VV, Kuznetcova AS, Shaposhnik II. Biomechanical Forces and Atherosclerosis: From Mechanism to Diagnosis and Treatment. Curr Cardiol Rev 2019; 16:187-197. [PMID: 31362692 PMCID: PMC7536809 DOI: 10.2174/1573403x15666190730095153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The article provides an overview of current views on the role of biomechanical forces in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. The importance of biomechanical forces in maintaining vascular homeostasis is considered. We provide descriptions of mechanosensing and mechanotransduction. The roles of wall shear stress and circumferential wall stress in the initiation, progression and destabilization of atherosclerotic plaque are described. The data on the possibilities of assessing biomechanical factors in clinical practice and the clinical significance of this approach are presented. The article concludes with a discussion on current therapeutic approaches based on the modulation of biomechanical forces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vadim V Genkel
- Department of Internal Medicine, Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "South-Ural State Medical University" of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation
| | - Alla S Kuznetcova
- Department of Hospital Therapy Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "South-Ural State Medical University" of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation
| | - Igor I Shaposhnik
- Department of Internal Medicine, Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "South-Ural State Medical University" of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hemodynamic Effects on Particle Targeting in the Arterial Bifurcation for Different Magnet Positions. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24132509. [PMID: 31324029 PMCID: PMC6650837 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24132509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study investigated the possibilities and feasibility of drug targeting for an arterial bifurcation lesion to influence the host healing response. A micrometer sized iron particle was used only to model the magnetic carrier in the experimental investigation (not intended for clinical use), to demonstrate the feasibility of the particle targeting at the lesion site and facilitate the new experimental investigations using coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Magnetic fields were generated by a single permanent external magnet (ferrite magnet). Artery bifurcation exerts severe impacts on drug distribution, both in the main vessel and the branches, practically inducing an uneven drug concentration distribution in the bifurcation lesion area. There are permanently positioned magnets in the vicinity of the bifurcation near the diseased area. The generated magnetic field induced deviation of the injected ferromagnetic particles and were captured onto the vessel wall of the test section. To increase the particle accumulation in the targeted region and consequently avoid the polypharmacology (interaction of the injected drug particles with multiple target sites), it is critical to understand flow hemodynamics and the correlation between flow structure, magnetic field gradient, and spatial position.
Collapse
|
11
|
Lakshmanan HHS, Shatzel JJ, Olson SR, McCarty OJT, Maddala J. Modeling the effect of blood vessel bifurcation ratio on occlusive thrombus formation. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 2019; 22:972-980. [PMID: 31066295 DOI: 10.1080/10255842.2019.1610744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Vascular geometry is a major determinant of the hemodynamics that promote or prevent unnecessary vessel occlusion from thrombus formation. Bifurcations in the vascular geometry are repeating structures that introduce flow separation between parent and daughter vessels. We modelled the blood flow and shear rate in a bifurcation during thrombus formation and show that blood vessel bifurcation ratios determine the maximum shear rate on the surface of a growing thrombus. We built an analytical model that may aid in predicting microvascular bifurcation ratios that are prone to occlusive thrombus formation. We also observed that bifurcation ratios that adhere to Murray's law of bifurcations may be protected from occlusive thrombus formation. These results may be useful in the rational design of diagnostic microfluidic devices and microfluidic blood oxygenators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hari Hara Sudhan Lakshmanan
- a Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , OR , USA.,b Chemical and Biomedical Engineering , West Virginia University , Morgantown , WV , USA
| | - Joseph J Shatzel
- a Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , OR , USA.,c Division of Hematology-Oncology, School of Medicine , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , OR , USA
| | - Sven R Olson
- c Division of Hematology-Oncology, School of Medicine , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , OR , USA
| | - Owen J T McCarty
- a Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , OR , USA.,c Division of Hematology-Oncology, School of Medicine , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , OR , USA
| | - Jeevan Maddala
- a Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine , Oregon Health & Science University , Portland , OR , USA.,b Chemical and Biomedical Engineering , West Virginia University , Morgantown , WV , USA
| |
Collapse
|