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Qi M, Gai R, Gao H. The effect of chronic academic stress on intentional forgetting. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024; 77:433-445. [PMID: 37042464 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231171481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated whether chronic academic stress could affect the directed forgetting (DF) process. Both the stress group (undergoing preparation for a major academic examination) and the control group performed a DF task. A forgetting cue was presented after a to-be-forgotten (TBF) word, whereas no cue appeared after a to-be-remembered (TBR) item in the study phase. An old/new recognition test was used in the test phase. The results showed that (1) the stress group showed a higher level of self-reported stress, state anxiety, negative affect, and decreased cortisol awakening response (CAR) compared with the control group, suggesting a higher level of stress for the stress group. (2) Both groups showed superior recognition performance of TBR than TBF items, suggesting a DF effect. (3) The stress group showed inferior recognition performance of TBF items and an enhanced DF effect compared with the control group. These results demonstrated that the intentional memory control process might be enhanced under chronic academic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingming Qi
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Ru Gai
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
| | - Heming Gao
- School of Psychology, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, China
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2
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Chalkia A, Vanhasbroeck N, Van Oudenhove L, Kindt M, Beckers T. Emotional associative memory is disrupted by directed forgetting. COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 1:24. [PMID: 39242722 PMCID: PMC11332221 DOI: 10.1038/s44271-023-00024-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2024]
Abstract
Memory is susceptible to voluntary disruption, for instance, through directed forgetting manipulations, in which people are cued to intentionally "forget" information. Until now, directed forgetting has been primarily studied for declarative memory performance. Here, we demonstrate that directed forgetting can also disrupt associative memories acquired through fear conditioning. In two experiments, participants showed poorer recognition and recall of images paired with electric shocks when instructed to forget, compared to when instructed to remember them. Further, they also showed weaker skin conductance responses to images paired with shocks that they were instructed to forget, despite repeated, full reinforcement of the aversive outcome. Our findings provide evidence for the effect of directed forgetting not only on declarative but also physiological read-outs of emotional memory, thereby suggesting that forgetting instructions can be applied to interfere with emotional associative memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Chalkia
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology & Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Niels Vanhasbroeck
- Research Group of Quantitative Psychology and Individual Differences, Faculty of Psychology & Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lukas Van Oudenhove
- Laboratory for Brain-Gut Axis Studies (LaBGAS), Translational Research Centre for Gastrointestinal Disorders (TARGID), Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Lab, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Merel Kindt
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tom Beckers
- Centre for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology & Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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3
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Bouvarel D, Gardette J, Saint-Macary M, Hot P. Emotional scene remembering: A combination of disturbing and facilitating effects of emotion? Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:992242. [PMID: 36275852 PMCID: PMC9582611 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.992242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
An emotion-induced memory trade-off effect is frequently reported when participants have to memorize complex items that include both neutral and emotional features. This bias corresponds to better remembering of central emotional information accompanied by poor performance related to neutral background information. Although the trade-off effect has been mainly associated with attentional bias toward emotional content, findings suggest that other non-attentional cognitive processes could also be involved. The aim of this work was to assess whether emotional effects would be reported apart from their influence on attentional processing in an immediate delay memory task. Three studies were conducted. In Study 1, manipulation of the diffusion quality of emotional content allowed us to select focal emotional pictures vs. diffuse emotional pictures, which prevented attentional focus. The two studies that followed consisted of a recognition task of low- and high-complexity pictures in which we used partial visual cues during the test that could display either the emotional elements (i.e., central patch cues, Study 2) or the peripheral elements (i.e., peripheral patch cues, Study 3) of the focal emotional pictures. Results from Studies 2 and 3 replicated traditional trade-off effects only for high-complexity pictures. In addition, diffuse emotional pictures were associated with lower memory performance than were neutral pictures, suggesting that emotion features could both disturb and enhance (via their attentional effect) encoding processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bouvarel
- LPNC, CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, University of Savoie Mont Blanc-Chambery, Grenoble, France
| | - Jeremy Gardette
- LPNC, CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, University of Savoie Mont Blanc-Chambery, Grenoble, France
| | - Manon Saint-Macary
- LPNC, CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, University of Savoie Mont Blanc-Chambery, Grenoble, France
| | - Pascal Hot
- LPNC, CNRS, Université Grenoble Alpes, University of Savoie Mont Blanc-Chambery, Grenoble, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Pascal Hot,
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4
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Obliviate! Reviewing Neural Fundamentals of Intentional Forgetting from a Meta-Analytic Perspective. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10071555. [PMID: 35884860 PMCID: PMC9313188 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10071555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 06/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Intentional forgetting (IF) is an important adaptive mechanism necessary for correct memory functioning, optimal psychological wellbeing, and appropriate daily performance. Due to its complexity, the neuropsychological processes that give birth to successful intentional forgetting are not yet clearly known. In this study, we used two different meta-analytic algorithms, Activation Likelihood Estimation (ALE) & Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) to quantitatively assess the neural correlates of IF and to evaluate the degree of compatibility between the proposed neurobiological models and the existing brain imaging data. We found that IF involves the interaction of two networks, the main “core regions” consisting of a primarily right-lateralized frontal-parietal circuit that is activated irrespective of the paradigm used and sample characteristics and a second less constrained “supportive network” that involves frontal-hippocampal interactions when IF takes place. Additionally, our results support the validity of the inhibitory or thought suppression hypothesis. The presence of a neural signature of IF that is stable regardless of experimental paradigms is a promising finding that may open new venues for the development of effective clinical interventions.
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Riegel M, Wierzba M, Wypych M, Ritchey M, Jednoróg K, Grabowska A, Vuilleumier P, Marchewka A. Distinct medial-tempora lobe mechanisms of encoding and amygdala-mediated memory reinstatement for disgust and fear. Neuroimage 2022; 251:118889. [PMID: 35065268 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.118889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Current models of episodic memory posit that retrieval involves the reenactment of encoding processes. Recent evidence has shown that this reinstatement process - indexed by subsequent encoding-retrieval similarity of brain activity patterns - is related to the activity in the hippocampus during encoding. However, we tend to re-experience emotional events in memory more richly than dull events. The role of amygdala - a critical hub of emotion processing - in reinstatement of emotional events was poorly understood. To investigate it, we leveraged a previously overlooked divergence in the role of amygdala in memory modulation by distinct emotions - disgust and fear. Here we used a novel paradigm in which participants encoded complex events (word pairs) and their memory was tested after 3 weeks, both phases during fMRI scanning. Using representational similarity analysis and univariate analyses, we show that the strength of amygdala activation during encoding was correlated with memory reinstatement of individual event representations in emotion-specific regions. Critically, amygdala modulated reinstatement more for disgust than fear. This was in line with other differences observed at the level of memory performance and neural mechanisms of encoding. Specifically, amygdala and perirhinal cortex were more involved during encoding of disgust-related events, whereas hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus during encoding of fear-related events. Together, these findings shed a new light on the role of the amygdala and medial temporal lobe regions in encoding and reinstatement of specific emotional memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Riegel
- Laboratory of Brain Imaging, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw 02-093, Poland; Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York 10027, United States of America; Centre interfacultaire de gérontologie et d'études des vulnerabilities, University of Geneva, CH-Geneva 1211, Switzerland.
| | - Małgorzata Wierzba
- Laboratory of Brain Imaging, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw 02-093, Poland
| | - Marek Wypych
- Laboratory of Brain Imaging, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw 02-093, Poland
| | - Maureen Ritchey
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, United States of America
| | - Katarzyna Jednoróg
- Laboratory of Brain Imaging, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw 02-093, Poland
| | - Anna Grabowska
- SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw 03-815, Poland
| | - Patrik Vuilleumier
- Department of Neuroscience, University Medical Center, Geneva CH-1211, Switzerland; Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Campus Biotech, CH-Geneva 1211, Switzerland; Geneva Neuroscience Center, University of Geneva, Geneva CH-1211, Switzerland
| | - Artur Marchewka
- Laboratory of Brain Imaging, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw 02-093, Poland
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Escitalopram modulates learning content-specific neuroplasticity of functional brain networks. Neuroimage 2021; 247:118829. [PMID: 34923134 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Learning-induced neuroplastic changes, further modulated by content and setting, are mirrored in brain functional connectivity (FC). In animal models, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been shown to facilitate neuroplasticity. This is especially prominent during emotional relearning, such as fear extinction, which may translate to clinical improvements in patients. To investigate a comparable modulation of neuroplasticity in humans, 99 healthy subjects underwent three weeks of emotional (matching faces) or non-emotional learning (matching Chinese characters to unrelated German nouns). Shuffled pairings of the original content were subsequently relearned for the same time. During relearning, subjects received either a daily dose of the SSRI escitalopram or placebo. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging was performed before and after the (re-)learning phases. FC changes in a network comprising Broca's area, the medial prefrontal cortex, the right inferior temporal and left lingual gyrus were modulated by escitalopram intake. More specifically, it increased the bidirectional connectivity between medial prefrontal cortex and lingual gyrus for non-emotional and the connectivity from medial prefrontal cortex to Broca's area for emotional relearning. The context dependence of these effects together with behavioral correlations supports the assumption that SSRIs in clinical practice improve neuroplasticity rather than psychiatric symptoms per se. Beyond expanding the complexities of learning, these findings emphasize the influence of external factors on human neuroplasticity.
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7
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Kliegl O, Bäuml KHT. The Mechanisms Underlying Interference and Inhibition: A Review of Current Behavioral and Neuroimaging Research. Brain Sci 2021; 11:1246. [PMID: 34573266 PMCID: PMC8467325 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11091246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The memory literature has identified interference and inhibition as two major sources of forgetting. While interference is generally considered to be a passive cause of forgetting arising from exposure to additional information that impedes subsequent recall of target information, inhibition concerns a more active and goal-directed cause of forgetting that can be achieved intentionally. Over the past 25 years, our knowledge of the neural mechanisms underlying both interference-induced and inhibition-induced forgetting has expanded substantially. The present paper gives a critical overview of this research, pointing out empirical gaps in the current work and providing suggestions for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Kliegl
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Regensburg University, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz T Bäuml
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Regensburg University, 93040 Regensburg, Germany
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8
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Emotional memories are (usually) harder to forget: A meta-analysis of the item-method directed forgetting literature. Psychon Bull Rev 2021; 28:1313-1326. [PMID: 33846935 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-021-01914-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The current meta-analysis explored whether emotional memories are less susceptible to item-method directed forgetting than neutral memories. Basic analyses revealed superior memory for remember (R) than forget (F) items in both the neutral, M = 19.6%, CI95% [16.1, 23.1], and the emotional, M = 15.1%, CI95% [12.4, 17.7], conditions. Directed forgetting in either valence condition was larger for (a) words than for other stimuli; (b) recall than recognition tests; (c) studies that used recall prior to recognition testing; (d) shorter lists; and (e) studies that included buffer items. Direct comparison of the magnitude of the directed forgetting effect across neutral and emotional conditions within studies revealed relatively diminished directed forgetting of emotional items compared to neutral items, with an average difference of 4.2%, CI95% [2.0, 6.4]. However, the nature of this finding varied broadly across studies, meaning that whether - and to what degree - emotional memories are more resilient than neutral memories likely depends on the methodological features of the study in question. Moderator analyses revealed larger differences (a) in studies for which the emotional items were more arousing than the neutral items, and (b) when buffer items were included. Together, these findings suggest that emotional memories are often more resilient to intentional forgetting than neutral memories, although further research is necessary to characterize the circumstances under which these differences emerge.
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9
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Matos P, Albuquerque PB. From retrospective to prospective memory research: a framework for investigating the deactivation of intentions. Cogn Process 2021; 22:411-434. [PMID: 33694121 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-021-01016-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The definition of episodic memory has evolved into a multifaceted concept that gathered great attention in several research areas in psychology and neuroscience. Prospective memory (PM), or the ability to remember to perform delayed intentions at a later moment in the future, represents one side of this capacity for which that has been a growing interest. In this review, we examined a counterintuitive finding: PM intentions may persist and affect our behaviour despite successful goal attainment and task completion, which in daily life may be as serious as taking medication twice. This review aims to elucidate the existing knowledge and identify some unresolved questions concerning this specific memory failure. Therefore, this review provides an overview of the uprising research dedicated to both PM omission and commission errors, including an analysis of its definitions, of the current theoretical approaches of PM retrieval, and the main procedures used in this field to offer an integrative perspective on this topic. Finally, the last section is devoted to discussing future directions to test the predictions of our suggested theoretical explanations for PM deactivation. This might be an avenue for research that is likely to extend our understanding of episodic memory's usefulness in everyday life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Matos
- School of Psychology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.
| | - Pedro B Albuquerque
- School of Psychology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal
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10
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Ni C, Jin X. Could L2 Lexical Attrition Be Predicted in the Dimension of Valence, Arousal, and Dominance? Front Psychol 2021; 11:552140. [PMID: 33391071 PMCID: PMC7773914 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.552140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study attended to predict L2 lexical attrition by means of a Decision Tree model (DT model) in three emotional dimensions, that is, the valence dimension, the arousal dimension, and the dominance dimension. A sample of 188 participants whose L1 was Chinese and L2 was English performed a recognition test of 500 words for measuring the L2 lexical attrition. The findings explored by the Decision Tree model indicated that L2 lexical attrition could be predicted in all the three emotional dimensions in two aspects: (1) among the three emotional dimensions, the valence dimension was the most powerful in predicting L2 lexical attrition, followed successively by the dominance dimension and the arousal dimension; (2) most of the neutral words in the three emotional dimensions were predicted to be inferior to emotional words in L2 attrition. In addition, the modified Revised Hierarchical Model for emotion could be adopted to justify the modulation of the emotion–memory effects upon L2 lexical attrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanbin Ni
- School of Foreign Languages and Cultures, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaobing Jin
- School of Foreign Languages and Cultures, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
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Abstract
Over the past century, psychologists have discussed whether forgetting might arise from active mechanisms that promote memory loss to achieve various functions, such as minimizing errors, facilitating learning, or regulating one's emotional state. The past decade has witnessed a great expansion in knowledge about the brain mechanisms underlying active forgetting in its varying forms. A core discovery concerns the role of the prefrontal cortex in exerting top-down control over mnemonic activity in the hippocampus and other brain structures, often via inhibitory control. New findings reveal that such processes not only induce forgetting of specific memories but also can suppress the operation of mnemonic processes more broadly, triggering windows of anterograde and retrograde amnesia in healthy people. Recent work extends active forgetting to nonhuman animals, presaging the development of a multilevel mechanistic account that spans the cognitive, systems, network, and even cellular levels. This work reveals how organisms adapt their memories to their cognitive and emotional goals and has implications for understanding vulnerability to psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Anderson
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge. Cambridge CB2 7EF, United Kingdom;
| | - Justin C Hulbert
- Psychology Program, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York 12504, USA
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12
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Kenney JPM, Ward C, Gallen D, Roche RAP, Dockree P, Hohensen N, Cassidy C, Keane MA, Hogan MJ. Self-initiated learning reveals memory performance and electrophysiological differences between younger, older and older adults with relative memory impairment. Eur J Neurosci 2019; 50:3855-3872. [PMID: 31344285 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Older adults display difficulties in encoding and retrieval of information, resulting in poorer memory. This may be due to an inability of older adults to engage elaborative encoding strategies during learning. This study examined behavioural and electrophysiological effects of explicit cues to self-initiate learning during encoding and subsequent recognition of words in younger adults (YA), older control adults (OA) and older adults with relative memory impairment (OD). The task was a variation of the old/new paradigm, some study items were preceded by a cue to learn the word (L) while others by a do not learn cue (X). Behaviourally, YA outperformed OA and OD on the recognition task, with no significant difference between OA and OD. Event-related potentials at encoding revealed enhanced early visual processing (70-140 ms) for L- versus X-words in young and old. Only YA exhibited a greater late posterior positivity (LPP; 200-500 ms) for all words during encoding perhaps reflecting superior encoding strategy. During recognition, only YA differentiated L- versus X-words with enhanced frontal P200 (150-250 ms) suggesting impaired early word selection for retrieval in older groups; however, OD had enhanced P200 activity compared to OA during L-word retrieval. The LPP (250-500 ms) was reduced in amplitude for L-words compared to both X- and new words. However, YA showed greater LPP amplitude for all words compared to OA. For older groups, we observed reduced left parietal hemispheric asymmetry apparent in YA during encoding and recognition, especially for OD. Findings are interpreted in the light of models of compensation and dedifferentiation associated with age-related changes in memory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne P M Kenney
- Department of Psychology, Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Christina Ward
- Department of Psychology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland
| | - Dervla Gallen
- Department of Psychology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland
| | | | - Paul Dockree
- Department of Psychology, Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Nicola Hohensen
- Department of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Clare Cassidy
- Department of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | | | - Michael J Hogan
- Department of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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Ćoso B, Guasch M, Ferré P, Hinojosa JA. Affective and concreteness norms for 3,022 Croatian words. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2019; 72:2302-2312. [PMID: 30744508 DOI: 10.1177/1747021819834226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This study presents subjective ratings for 3,022 Croatian words, which were evaluated on two affective dimensions (valence and arousal) and one lexico-semantic variable (concreteness). A sample of 933 Croatian native speakers rated the words online. Ratings showed high reliabilities for all three variables, as well as significant correlations with ratings from databases available in Spanish and English. A quadratic relation between valence and arousal was observed, with a tendency for arousal to increase for negative and positive words, and neutral words having the lowest arousal ratings. In addition, significant correlations were found between affective dimensions and word concreteness, suggesting that abstract words have a tendency to be more arousing and emotional than concrete words. The present database will allow experimental research in Croatian, a language with a considerable lack of psycholinguistic norms, by providing researchers with a useful tool in the investigation of the relationship between language and emotion for the South-Slavic group of languages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojana Ćoso
- 1 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Marc Guasch
- 2 Department of Psychology, Research Center for Behavior Assessment, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Pilar Ferré
- 2 Department of Psychology, Research Center for Behavior Assessment, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - José Antonio Hinojosa
- 3 Facultad de Psicología, Instituto Pluridisciplinar, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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