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Bohn T, de Lera AR, Landrier JF, Carlsen H, Merk D, Todt T, Renaut J, Rühl R. State-of-the-art methodological investigation of carotenoid activity and metabolism - from organic synthesis via metabolism to biological activity - exemplified by a novel retinoid signalling pathway. Food Funct 2023; 14:621-638. [PMID: 36562448 DOI: 10.1039/d2fo02816f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Carotenoids are the most abundant lipophilic secondary plant metabolites and their dietary intake has been related to a large number of potential health benefits relevant for humans, including even reduced total mortality. An important feature is their potential to impact oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways, by interacting with transcription factors. For example, they may act as precursors of bioactive derivatives activating nuclear hormone receptor mediated signalling. These bioactive derivatives, originating e.g. from β-carotene, i.e. retinoids / vitamin A, can activate the nuclear hormone receptors RARs (retinoic acid receptors). Due to new analytical insights, various novel metabolic pathways were recently outlined to be mediated via distinct nuclear hormone receptor activating pathways that were predicted and further confirmed. In this article, we describe old and novel metabolic pathways from various carotenoids towards novel ligands of alternative nuclear hormone receptors. However, to fully elucidate these pathways, a larger array of techniques and tools, starting from organic synthesis, lipidomics, reporter models, classical in vitro and in vivo models and further omics-approaches and their statistical evaluation are needed to comprehensively and conclusively study this topic. Thus, we further describe state-of-the-art techniques from A to Ω elucidating carotenoid biological mediated activities and describe in detail required materials and methods needed - in practical protocol form - for the various steps of carotenoid investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Bohn
- Luxembourg Institute of Health, Nutrition and Health Research Group, Department of Precision Health, 1 A-B, rue Thomas Edison, L-1445 Strassen, Luxembourg
| | - Angel R de Lera
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IBIV, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Harald Carlsen
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Daniel Merk
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Department of Pharmacy, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Tilman Todt
- HAN University of Applied Sciences, School of Applied Biosciences and Chemistry, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jenny Renaut
- Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 41, rue du Brill, L-4422 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Ralph Rühl
- CISCAREX UG, Berlin, Germany. .,Paprika Bioanalytics BT, Debrecen, Hungary
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2
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Krueger K, Boehme E, Klettner AK, Zille M. The potential of marine resources for retinal diseases: a systematic review of the molecular mechanisms. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:7518-7560. [PMID: 33970706 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1915242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
We rely on vision more than on any other sense to obtain information about our environment. Hence, the loss or even impairment of vision profoundly affects our quality of life. Diet or food components have already demonstrated beneficial effects on the development of retinal diseases. Recently, there has been a growing interest in resources from marine animals and plants for the prevention of retinal diseases through nutrition. Especially fish intake and omega-3 fatty acids have already led to promising results, including associations with a reduced incidence of retinal diseases. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms are insufficiently explained. The aim of this review was to summarize the known mechanistic effects of marine resources on the pathophysiological processes in retinal diseases. We performed a systematic literature review following the PRISMA guidelines and identified 107 studies investigating marine resources in the context of retinal diseases. Of these, 46 studies described the underlying mechanisms including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiangiogenic/vasoprotective, cytoprotective, metabolic, and retinal function effects, which we critically summarize. We further discuss perspectives on the use of marine resources for human nutrition to prevent retinal diseases with a particular focus on regulatory aspects, health claims, safety, and bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Krueger
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Fraunhofer Research and Development Center for Marine and Cellular Biotechnology EMB, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Elke Boehme
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Fraunhofer Research and Development Center for Marine and Cellular Biotechnology EMB, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Alexa Karina Klettner
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center, University of Kiel, Quincke Research Center, Kiel, Germany
| | - Marietta Zille
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Fraunhofer Research and Development Center for Marine and Cellular Biotechnology EMB, Lübeck, Germany.,Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
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3
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Sui Y, Harvey PJ. Effect of Light Intensity and Wavelength on Biomass Growth and Protein and Amino Acid Composition of Dunaliella salina. Foods 2021; 10:foods10051018. [PMID: 34067033 PMCID: PMC8150290 DOI: 10.3390/foods10051018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Dunaliella salina is a halotolerant, photoautotrophic marine microalga and one of the richest sources of natural carotenoids but also shows potential as a novel food source with high protein quality. This study sought to optimise the production of biomass, protein and amino acids from D. salina, alongside carotenoids using a two-stage cultivation approach based on the use of light of different intensities and quality, i.e., white, red and blue LED light. In stage 1, four white LED light intensities were tested. In stage 2, the same four light intensities from either blue or red LEDs were applied once exponential growth ceased and cells reached the stationary phase under white LED light in stage 1. Remarkably, both biomass concentration and biomass productivity showed a 1.3–1.7-fold increase in stage 2, without medium replenishment, while protein concentration and protein productivity showed an ~1.1-fold increase. The amino acid content and amino acid index remained unchanged from stage 1 to stage 2, and minimum difference was found across different light intensities. Overall, D. salina delivered so-called high protein quality, with an essential amino acid index (EAAI) of 0.99, and red light, which has previously been shown to increase carotenoid production, boosted further biomass production over and above white light, at all light intensities tested.
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4
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Vitamin A5/X, a New Food to Lipid Hormone Concept for a Nutritional Ligand to Control RXR-Mediated Signaling. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13030925. [PMID: 33809241 PMCID: PMC7999121 DOI: 10.3390/nu13030925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin A is a family of derivatives synthesized from carotenoids acquired from the diet and can be converted in animals to bioactive forms essential for life. Vitamin A1 (all-trans-retinol/ATROL) and provitamin A1 (all-trans-β,β-carotene/ATBC) are precursors of all-trans-retinoic acid acting as a ligand for the retinoic acid receptors. The contribution of ATROL and ATBC to formation of 9-cis-13,14-dihydroretinoic acid (9CDHRA), the only endogenous retinoid acting as retinoid X receptor (RXR) ligand, remains unknown. To address this point novel and already known retinoids and carotenoids were stereoselectively synthesized and administered in vitro to oligodendrocyte cell culture and supplemented in vivo (orally) to mice with a following high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS)/UV-Vis based metabolic profiling. In this study, we show that ATROL and ATBC are at best only weak and non-selective precursors of 9CDHRA. Instead, we identify 9-cis-13,14-dihydroretinol (9CDHROL) and 9-cis-13,14-dihydro-β,β-carotene (9CDHBC) as novel direct nutritional precursors of 9CDHRA, which are present endogenously in humans and the human food chain matrix. Furthermore, 9CDHROL displayed RXR-dependent promnemonic activity in working memory test similar to that reported for 9CDHRA. We also propose that the endogenous carotenoid 9-cis-β,β-carotene (9CBC) can act as weak, indirect precursor of 9CDHRA via hydrogenation to 9CDHBC and further metabolism to 9CDHROL and/or 9CDHRA. In summary, since classical vitamin A1 is not an efficient 9CDHRA precursor, we conclude that this group of molecules constitutes a new class of vitamin or a new independent member of the vitamin A family, named “Vitamin A5/X”.
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Rivas A, Areal A, Mora P, Álvarez R, de Lera AR. Synthesis of Symmetrical and Nonsymmetrical Polyenes by Iterative and Bidirectional Palladium-Catalyzed Cross-Coupling Reactions. Chemistry 2020; 26:13543-13567. [PMID: 32267574 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202000624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Bifunctional unsaturated reagents designed to undergo palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions with complementary polyenyl connective fragments are highly useful for the undoubtedly challenging synthesis of polyenes. The current toolkit of building blocks for the bidirectional formation of Csp2 -Csp2 single bonds of polyenes includes homo-bisfunctionalized reagents with equal or unequal reactivity (due to steric and/or electronic factors), and hetero-bisfunctionalized counterparts containing either two different nucleophiles, two electrophiles or one of these functionalities and a latent nucleophile that can be unmasked when desired. The combination of these bifunctional linchpin reagents using tactics that modulate the reactivity of each terminus in order to achieve the required connection have streamlined the synthesis of polyenes of great complexity using (iterative) cross-coupling methods for Csp2 -Csp2 bond formation. Reaction conditions for the Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions are mild and functional-group-tolerant, and therefore these protocols allow to construct the polyene structures using shorter unsaturated reactants with the desired geometries, since in general the products preserve the stereochemical information of the connected cross-coupling partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurea Rivas
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | - Andrea Areal
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | - Paula Mora
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | - Rosana Álvarez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | - Angel R de Lera
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
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6
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Harvey PJ, Ben-Amotz A. Towards a sustainable Dunaliella salina microalgal biorefinery for 9-cis β-carotene production. ALGAL RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2020.102002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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7
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Rivas A, Pérez-Revenga V, Alvarez R, de Lera AR. Bidirectional Hiyama-Denmark Cross-Coupling Reactions of Bissilyldeca-1,3,5,7,9-pentaenes for the Synthesis of Symmetrical and Non-Symmetrical Carotenoids. Chemistry 2019; 25:14399-14407. [PMID: 31456273 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201903080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The construction of the carotenoid skeleton by Pd-catalyzed Csp2 -Csp2 cross-coupling reactions of symmetrical and non-symmetrical 1,10-bissilyldeca-1,3,5,7,9-pentaenes and the corresponding complementary alkenyl iodides has been developed. Reaction conditions for these bidirectional and orthogonal Hiyama-Denmark cross-coupling reactions of bisfunctionalized pentaenes are mild and the carotenoid products preserve the stereochemical information of the corresponding oligoene partners. The carotenoids synthesized in this manner include β,β-carotene and (3R,3'R)-zeaxanthin (symmetrical) as well as 9-cis-β,β-carotene, 7,8-dihydro-β,β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin (non-symmetrical).
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurea Rivas
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | - Víctor Pérez-Revenga
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | - Rosana Alvarez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
| | - Angel R de Lera
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultade de Química, CINBIO and IIS Galicia Sur, Universidade de Vigo, 36310, Vigo, Spain
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8
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Kahremany S, Kubas A, Tochtrop GP, Palczewski K. Catalytic synthesis of 9-cis-retinoids: mechanistic insights. Dalton Trans 2019; 48:10581-10595. [PMID: 31218312 PMCID: PMC7004310 DOI: 10.1039/c9dt02189b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The regioselective Z-isomerization of thermodynamically stable all-trans retinoids remains challenging, and ultimately limits the availability of much needed therapeutics for the treatment of human diseases. We present here a novel, straightforward approach for the catalytic Z-isomerization of retinoids using conventional heat treatment or microwave irradiation. A screen of 20 transition metal-based catalysts identified an optimal approach for the regioselective production of Z-retinoids. The most effective catalytic system was comprised of a palladium complex with labile ligands. Several mechanistic studies, including isotopic H/D exchange and state-of-the-art quantum chemical calculations using coupled cluster methods indicate that the isomerization is initiated by catalyst dimerization followed by the formation of a cyclic, six-membered chloropalladate catalyst-substrate adduct, which eventually opens to produce the desired Z-isomer. The synthetic development described here, combined with thorough mechanistic analysis of the underlying chemistry, highlights the use of readily available transition metal-based catalysts in straightforward formats for gram-scale drug synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shirin Kahremany
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. and Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Adam Kubas
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Gregory P Tochtrop
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. and Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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9
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Galasso C, Gentile A, Orefice I, Ianora A, Bruno A, Noonan DM, Sansone C, Albini A, Brunet C. Microalgal Derivatives as Potential Nutraceutical and Food Supplements for Human Health: A Focus on Cancer Prevention and Interception. Nutrients 2019; 11:E1226. [PMID: 31146462 PMCID: PMC6627306 DOI: 10.3390/nu11061226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies are providing strong evidence on beneficial health effects from dietary measures, leading scientists to actively investigate which foods and which specific agents in the diet can prevent diseases. Public health officers and medical experts should collaborate toward the design of disease prevention diets for nutritional intervention. Functional foods are emerging as an instrument for dietary intervention in disease prevention. Functional food products are technologically developed ingredients with specific health benefits. Among promising sources of functional foods and chemopreventive diets of interest, microalgae are gaining worldwide attention, based on their richness in high-value products, including carotenoids, proteins, vitamins, essential amino acids, omega-rich oils and, in general, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds. Beneficial effects of microalgae on human health and/or wellness could in the future be useful in preventing or delaying the onset of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. During the past decades, microalgal biomass was predominately used in the health food market, with more than 75% of the annual microalgal biomass production being employed for the manufacture of powders, tablets, capsules or pastilles. In this review, we report and discuss the present and future role of microalgae as marine sources of functional foods/beverages for human wellbeing, focusing on perspectives in chemoprevention. We dissected this topic by analyzing the different classes of microalgal compounds with health outputs (based on their potential chemoprevention activities), the biodiversity of microalgal species and how to improve their cultivation, exploring the perspective of sustainable food from the sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Galasso
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Naples, Italy.
| | - Antonio Gentile
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Naples, Italy.
| | - Ida Orefice
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Naples, Italy.
| | - Adrianna Ianora
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Naples, Italy.
| | - Antonino Bruno
- Laboratory of Vascular Biology and Angiogenesis, IRCCS MultiMedica, 20138 Milan, Italy.
| | - Douglas M Noonan
- Laboratory of Vascular Biology and Angiogenesis, IRCCS MultiMedica, 20138 Milan, Italy.
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, 211000 Varese, Italy.
| | | | - Adriana Albini
- Laboratory of Vascular Biology and Angiogenesis, IRCCS MultiMedica, 20138 Milan, Italy.
- School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20900 Monza, Italy.
| | - Christophe Brunet
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Naples, Italy.
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Xu Y, Harvey PJ. Red Light Control of β-Carotene Isomerisation to 9-cis β-Carotene and Carotenoid Accumulation in Dunaliella salina. Antioxidants (Basel) 2019; 8:antiox8050148. [PMID: 31137878 PMCID: PMC6562661 DOI: 10.3390/antiox8050148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Dunaliella salina is a rich source of 9-cis β-carotene, which has been identified as an important biomolecule in the treatment of retinal dystrophies and other diseases. We previously showed that chlorophyll absorption of red light photons in D. salina is coupled with oxygen reduction and phytoene desaturation, and that it increases the pool size of β-carotene. Here, we show for the first time that growth under red light also controls the conversion of extant all-trans β-carotene to 9-cis β-carotene by β-carotene isomerases. Cells illuminated with red light from a light emitting diode (LED) during cultivation contained a higher 9-cis β-carotene content compared to cells illuminated with white or blue LED light. The 9-cis/all-trans β-carotene ratio in red light treated cultures reached >2.5 within 48 h, and was independent of light intensity. Illumination using red light filters that eliminated blue wavelength light also increased the 9-cis/all-trans β-carotene ratio. With norflurazon, a phytoene desaturase inhibitor which blocked downstream biosynthesis of β-carotene, extant all-trans β-carotene was converted to 9-cis β-carotene during growth with red light and the 9-cis/all-trans β-carotene ratio was ~2. With blue light under the same conditions, 9-cis β-carotene was likely destroyed at a greater rate than all-trans β-carotene (9-cis/all-trans ratio 0.5). Red light perception by the red light photoreceptor, phytochrome, may increase the pool size of anti-oxidant, specifically 9-cis β-carotene, both by upregulating phytoene synthase to increase the rate of biosynthesis of β-carotene and to reduce the rate of formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and by upregulating β-carotene isomerases to convert extant all-trans β-carotene to 9-cis β-carotene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Xu
- Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK.
| | - Patricia J Harvey
- Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Greenwich, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK.
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Mitochondrial Function, Mobility and Lifespan Are Improved in Drosophila melanogaster by Extracts of 9- cis-β-Carotene from Dunaliella salina. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17050279. [PMID: 31083322 PMCID: PMC6563070 DOI: 10.3390/md17050279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Carotenoids are implicated in alleviating ageing and age-related diseases in humans. While data from different carotenoids are mixed in their outcomes, those for 9-cis-β-carotene indicate general positive effects, although basic data on its biological impact are limited. Here, we show that supplementation with 9-cis-β-carotene in ageing Drosophila melanogaster improved mitochondrial function in terms of ATP production and whole-body respiration and extended mean lifespan. It also resulted in improved mobility. These data provide a potential biological rational for the beneficial effects of dietary supplementation with 9-cis-β-carotene. These effects may be based on the maintenance of a sound mitochondrial function.
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12
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Sundaramurthi H, Moran A, Perpetuini AC, Reynolds A, Kennedy B. Emerging Drug Therapies for Inherited Retinal Dystrophies. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1185:263-267. [PMID: 31884622 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-27378-1_43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Worldwide, 1 in 2000 people suffer from inherited retinal dystrophies (IRD). Individuals with IRD typically present with progressive vision loss that ultimately results in blindness. Unfortunately, effective treatment options are not widely available due to the genetic and clinical heterogeneity of these diseases. There are multiple gene, cell, and drug-based therapies in various phases of clinical trials for IRD. This mini-review documents current progress made in drug-based clinical trials for treating IRD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Husvinee Sundaramurthi
- UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin,, Dublin, Ireland.
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
- UCD School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
- Systems Biology Ireland, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Ailís Moran
- UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin,, Dublin, Ireland
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Andrea Cerquone Perpetuini
- UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin,, Dublin, Ireland
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Alison Reynolds
- UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin,, Dublin, Ireland
- UCD School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Breandán Kennedy
- UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin,, Dublin, Ireland
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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