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Chen YY, Huang JC, Wu CY, Yu SQ, Wang YT, Ye C, Shi TQ, Huang H. A comprehensive review on the recent advances for 5-aminolevulinic acid production by the engineered bacteria. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2024:1-16. [PMID: 38705840 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2024.2336532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) is a non-proteinogenic amino acid essential for synthesizing tetrapyrrole compounds, including heme, chlorophyll, cytochrome, and vitamin B12. As a plant growth regulator, 5-ALA is extensively used in agriculture to enhance crop yield and quality. The complexity and low yield of chemical synthesis methods have led to significant interest in the microbial synthesis of 5-ALA. Advanced strategies, including the: enhancement of precursor and cofactor supply, compartmentalization of key enzymes, product transporters engineering, by-product formation reduction, and biosensor-based dynamic regulation, have been implemented in bacteria for 5-ALA production, significantly advancing its industrialization. This article offers a comprehensive review of recent developments in 5-ALA production using engineered bacteria and presents new insights to propel the field forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Ying Chen
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jia-Cong Huang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Cai-Yun Wu
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shi-Qin Yu
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
- Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
- National Engineering Research Center of Cereal Fermentation and Food Biomanufacturing, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Yue-Tong Wang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chao Ye
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tian-Qiong Shi
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - He Huang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
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Ko YJ, Lee ME, Cho BH, Kim M, Hyeon JE, Han JH, Han SO. Bioproduction of porphyrins, phycobilins, and their proteins using microbial cell factories: engineering, metabolic regulations, challenges, and perspectives. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2024; 44:373-387. [PMID: 36775664 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2023.2168512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/14/2023]
Abstract
Porphyrins, phycobilins, and their proteins have abundant π-electrons and strongly absorb visible light, some of which bind a metal ion in the center. Because of the structural and optical properties, they not only play critical roles as an essential component in natural systems but also have attracted much attention as a high value specialty chemical in various fields, including renewable energy, cosmetics, medicines, and foods. However, their commercial application seems to be still limited because the market price of porphyrins and phycobilins is generally expensive to apply them easily. Furthermore, their petroleum-based chemical synthesis is energy-intensive and emits a pollutant. Recently, to replace petroleum-based production, many studies on the bioproduction of metalloporphyrins, including Zn-porphyrin, Co-porphyrin, and heme, porphyrin derivatives including chlorophyll, biliverdin, and phycobilins, and their proteins including hemoproteins, phycobiliproteins, and phytochromes from renewable carbon sources using microbial cell factories have been reported. This review outlines recent advances in the bioproduction of porphyrins, phycobilins, and their proteins using microbial cell factories developed by various microbial biotechnology techniques, provides well-organized information on metabolic regulations of the porphyrin metabolism, and then critically discusses challenges and future perspectives. Through these, it is expected to be able to achieve possible solutions and insights and to develop an outstanding platform to be applied to the industry in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Jin Ko
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Life Science and Natural Resources, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Myeong-Eun Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Byeong-Hyeon Cho
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Minhye Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Eun Hyeon
- Department of Next Generation Applied Sciences, The Graduate School of Sungshin University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Knowledge-Based Services Engineering, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joo Hee Han
- Department of Next Generation Applied Sciences, The Graduate School of Sungshin University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Knowledge-Based Services Engineering, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sung Ok Han
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Wang W, Xiang Y, Yin G, Hu S, Cheng J, Chen J, Du G, Kang Z, Wang Y. Construction of 5-Aminolevulinic Acid Microbial Cell Factories through Identification of Novel Synthases and Metabolic Pathway Screens and Transporters. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:8006-8017. [PMID: 38554273 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c00903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) plays a pivotal role in the biosynthesis of heme and chlorophyll and has garnered great attention for its agricultural applications. This study explores the multifaceted construction of 5-ALA microbial cell factories. Evolutionary analysis-guided screening identified a novel 5-ALA synthase from Sphingobium amiense as the best synthase. An sRNA library facilitated global gene screening that demonstrated that trpC and ilvA repression enhanced 5-ALA production by 74.3% and 102%, respectively. Subsequently, efflux of 5-ALA by the transporter Gdx increased 5-ALA biosynthesis by 25.7%. To mitigate oxidative toxicity, DNA-binding proteins from starved cells were employed, enhancing cell density and 5-ALA titer by 21.1 and 4.1%, respectively. Combining these strategies resulted in an Escherichia coli strain that produced 5-ALA to 1.51 g·L-1 in shake flask experiments and 6.19 g·L-1 through fed-batch fermentation. This study broadens the repertoire of available 5-ALA synthases and transporters and provides a new platform for optimizing 5-ALA bioproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqiu Wang
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Jiaxing Institute of Future Food, Jiaxing 314050, China
| | - Yulong Xiang
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Guobin Yin
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Shan Hu
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- Jiaxing Institute of Future Food, Jiaxing 314050, China
| | - Jian Cheng
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Jian Chen
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Guocheng Du
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Zhen Kang
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Yang Wang
- The Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
- The Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
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Key J, Gispert S, Koepf G, Steinhoff-Wagner J, Reichlmeir M, Auburger G. Translation Fidelity and Respiration Deficits in CLPP-Deficient Tissues: Mechanistic Insights from Mitochondrial Complexome Profiling. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17503. [PMID: 38139332 PMCID: PMC10743472 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrial matrix peptidase CLPP is crucial during cell stress. Its loss causes Perrault syndrome type 3 (PRLTS3) with infertility, neurodegeneration, and a growth deficit. Its target proteins are disaggregated by CLPX, which also regulates heme biosynthesis via unfolding ALAS enzymes, providing access for pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP). Despite efforts in diverse organisms with multiple techniques, CLPXP substrates remain controversial. Here, avoiding recombinant overexpression, we employed complexomics in mitochondria from three mouse tissues to identify endogenous targets. A CLPP absence caused the accumulation and dispersion of CLPX-VWA8 as AAA+ unfoldases, and of PLPBP. Similar changes and CLPX-VWA8 co-migration were evident for mitoribosomal central protuberance clusters, translation factors like GFM1-HARS2, the RNA granule components LRPPRC-SLIRP, and enzymes OAT-ALDH18A1. Mitochondrially translated proteins in testes showed reductions to <30% for MTCO1-3, the mis-assembly of the complex IV supercomplex, and accumulated metal-binding assembly factors COX15-SFXN4. Indeed, heavy metal levels were increased for iron, molybdenum, cobalt, and manganese. RT-qPCR showed compensatory downregulation only for Clpx mRNA; most accumulated proteins appeared transcriptionally upregulated. Immunoblots validated VWA8, MRPL38, MRPL18, GFM1, and OAT accumulation. Co-immunoprecipitation confirmed CLPX binding to MRPL38, GFM1, and OAT, so excess CLPX and PLP may affect their activity. Our data mechanistically elucidate the mitochondrial translation fidelity deficits which underlie progressive hearing impairment in PRLTS3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Key
- Goethe University Frankfurt, University Hospital, Clinic of Neurology, Exp. Neurology, Heinrich Hoffmann Str. 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (S.G.); (M.R.); (G.A.)
| | - Suzana Gispert
- Goethe University Frankfurt, University Hospital, Clinic of Neurology, Exp. Neurology, Heinrich Hoffmann Str. 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (S.G.); (M.R.); (G.A.)
| | - Gabriele Koepf
- Goethe University Frankfurt, University Hospital, Clinic of Neurology, Exp. Neurology, Heinrich Hoffmann Str. 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (S.G.); (M.R.); (G.A.)
| | - Julia Steinhoff-Wagner
- TUM School of Life Sciences, Animal Nutrition and Metabolism, Technical University of Munich, Liesel-Beckmann-Str. 2, 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany;
| | - Marina Reichlmeir
- Goethe University Frankfurt, University Hospital, Clinic of Neurology, Exp. Neurology, Heinrich Hoffmann Str. 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (S.G.); (M.R.); (G.A.)
| | - Georg Auburger
- Goethe University Frankfurt, University Hospital, Clinic of Neurology, Exp. Neurology, Heinrich Hoffmann Str. 7, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; (S.G.); (M.R.); (G.A.)
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Oduselu GO, Afolabi R, Ademuwagun I, Vaughan A, Adebiyi E. Structure-based pharmacophore modeling, virtual screening, and molecular dynamics simulation studies for identification of Plasmodium falciparum 5-aminolevulinate synthase inhibitors. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 9:1022429. [PMID: 36714108 PMCID: PMC9877529 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.1022429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase (5-ALAS) is an essential enzyme with high selectivity during liver stage development, signifying its potential as a prophylactic antimalarial drug target. The aim of this study was to identify important potential lead compounds which can serve as inhibitors of Pf 5-ALAS using pharmacophore modeling, virtual screening, qualitative structural assessment, in silico ADMET (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Toxicity) evaluation and molecular dynamics simulation. The best model of the tertiary structure of Pf 5-ALAS was obtained using MolProbity, while the following databases were explored for the pharmacophore-based virtual screening: CHEMBL, ChemDiv, ChemSpace, MCULE, MCULE-ULTIMATE, MolPort, NCI Open Chemical Repository, LabNetwork and ZINC databases. 2,621 compounds were screened against the modeled Pf 5-ALAS using AutoDock vina. The post-screening analysis was carried out using Discovery Studio while molecular dynamics simulation was performed on the best hits using NAMD-VMD and Galaxy Europe platform. Compound CSMS00081585868 was observed as the best hit with a binding affinity of -9.9 kcal/mol and predicted Ki of 52.10 nM, engaging in seven hydrogen bonds with the target's active site amino acid residues. The in silico ADMET prediction showed that all ten best hits possessed relatively good pharmacokinetic properties. The qualitative structural assessment of the best hit, CSMS00081585868, revealed that the presence of two pyridine scaffolds bearing hydroxy and fluorine groups linked by a pyrrolidine scaffold contributed significantly to its ability to have a strong binding affinity with the receptor. The best hit also showed stability in the active site of Pf 5-ALAS as confirmed from the RMSD obtained during the MD simulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gbolahan O. Oduselu
- Covenant University Bioinformatics Research (CUBRe), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
- Department of Chemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Rufus Afolabi
- Covenant University Bioinformatics Research (CUBRe), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Ibitayo Ademuwagun
- Covenant University Bioinformatics Research (CUBRe), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Ashley Vaughan
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Ezekiel Adebiyi
- Covenant University Bioinformatics Research (CUBRe), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
- Department of Computer and Information Science, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
- Covenant Applied Informatics and Communications ACE (CApIC-ACE), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
- Division of Applied Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
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6
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He G, Jiang M, Cui Z, Sun X, Chen T, Wang Z. Construction of 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase variants by cysteine-targeted mutation to release heme inhibition. J Biosci Bioeng 2022; 134:416-423. [PMID: 36089467 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2022.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), a vital precursor for the biosynthesis of tetrapyrrole compounds, has been widely applied in agriculture and medicine, while extremely potential for the treatment of cancers, corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and metabolic diseases in recent years. With the development of metabolic engineering and synthetic biology, the biosynthesis of 5-ALA has attracted increasing attention. 5-Aminolevulinic acid synthase (ALAS), the key enzyme for 5-ALA synthesis in the C4 pathway, is subject to stringent feedback inhibition by heme. In this work, cysteine-targeted mutation of ALAS was proposed to overcome this drawback. ALAS from Rhodopseudomonas palustris (RP-ALAS) and Rhodobacter capsulatus (RC-ALAS) were selected for mutation and eight variants were generated. Variants RP-C132A and RC-C201A increased enzyme activities and released hemin inhibition, respectively, maintaining 82.5% and 81.9% residual activities in the presence of 15 μM hemin. Moreover, the two variants exhibited higher stability than that of their corresponding wild-type enzymes. Corynebacterium glutamicum overexpressing RP-C132A and RC-C201A produced 14.0% and 21.6% higher titers of 5-ALA than the control, respectively. These results strongly suggested that variants RP-C132A and RC-C201A obtained by utilizing cysteine-targeted mutation strategy released hemin inhibition, broadening their applications in 5-ALA biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guimei He
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Meiru Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Zhenzhen Cui
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Xi Sun
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Tao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Zhiwen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
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Hunter GA, Ferreira GC. An Extended C-Terminus, the Possible Culprit for Differential Regulation of 5-Aminolevulinate Synthase Isoforms. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:920668. [PMID: 35911972 PMCID: PMC9329541 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.920668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
5-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS; E.C. 2.3.1.37) is a pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the key regulatory step of porphyrin biosynthesis in metazoa, fungi, and α-proteobacteria. ALAS is evolutionarily related to transaminases and is therefore classified as a fold type I PLP-dependent enzyme. As an enzyme controlling the key committed and rate-determining step of a crucial biochemical pathway ALAS is ideally positioned to be subject to allosteric feedback inhibition. Extensive kinetic and mutational studies demonstrated that the overall enzyme reaction is limited by subtle conformational changes of a hairpin loop gating the active site. These findings, coupled with structural information, facilitated early prediction of allosteric regulation of activity via an extended C-terminal tail unique to eukaryotic forms of the enzyme. This prediction was subsequently supported by the discoveries that mutations in the extended C-terminus of the erythroid ALAS isoform (ALAS2) cause a metabolic disorder known as X-linked protoporphyria not by diminishing activity, but by enhancing it. Furthermore, kinetic, structural, and molecular modeling studies demonstrated that the extended C-terminal tail controls the catalytic rate by modulating conformational flexibility of the active site loop. However, the precise identity of any such molecule remains to be defined. Here we discuss the most plausible allosteric regulators of ALAS activity based on divergences in AlphaFold-predicted ALAS structures and suggest how the mystery of the mechanism whereby the extended C-terminus of mammalian ALASs allosterically controls the rate of porphyrin biosynthesis might be unraveled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory A. Hunter
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Gregory A. Hunter, ; Gloria C. Ferreira,
| | - Gloria C. Ferreira
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
- Global and Planetary Health, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Gregory A. Hunter, ; Gloria C. Ferreira,
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Harada Y, Murayama Y, Takamatsu T, Otsuji E, Tanaka H. 5-Aminolevulinic Acid-Induced Protoporphyrin IX Fluorescence Imaging for Tumor Detection: Recent Advances and Challenges. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126478. [PMID: 35742921 PMCID: PMC9223645 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) is a natural amino acid and a precursor of heme and chlorophyll. Exogenously administered 5-ALA is metabolized into protoporphyrin IX (PpIX). PpIX accumulates in cancer cells because of the low activity of ferrochelatase, an enzyme that metabolizes PpIX to heme. High expression of 5-ALA influx transporters, such as peptide transporters 1/2, in cancer cells also enhances PpIX production. Because PpIX radiates red fluorescence when excited with blue/violet light, 5-ALA has been used for the visualization of various tumors. 5-ALA photodynamic diagnosis (PDD) has been shown to improve the tumor removal rate in high-grade gliomas and non-muscular invasive bladder cancers. However, 5-ALA PDD remains a challenge as a diagnostic method because tissue autofluorescence interferes with PpIX signals in cases where tumors emit only weak signals, and non-tumorous lesions, such as inflammatory sites, tend to emit PpIX fluorescence. Here, we review the current outline of 5-ALA PDD and strategies for improving its diagnostic applicability for tumor detection, focusing on optical techniques and 5-ALA metabolic pathways in both viable and necrotic tumor tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinori Harada
- Department of Pathology and Cell Regulation, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-75-251-5322
| | - Yasutoshi Murayama
- Division of Digestive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan; (Y.M.); (E.O.)
| | - Tetsuro Takamatsu
- Department of Medical Photonics, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan;
| | - Eigo Otsuji
- Division of Digestive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan; (Y.M.); (E.O.)
| | - Hideo Tanaka
- Department of Pathology and Cell Regulation, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan;
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10
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Fleischhacker AS, Sarkar A, Liu L, Ragsdale SW. Regulation of protein function and degradation by heme, heme responsive motifs, and CO. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2022; 57:16-47. [PMID: 34517731 PMCID: PMC8966953 DOI: 10.1080/10409238.2021.1961674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Heme is an essential biomolecule and cofactor involved in a myriad of biological processes. In this review, we focus on how heme binding to heme regulatory motifs (HRMs), catalytic sites, and gas signaling molecules as well as how changes in the heme redox state regulate protein structure, function, and degradation. We also relate these heme-dependent changes to the affected metabolic processes. We center our discussion on two HRM-containing proteins: human heme oxygenase-2, a protein that binds and degrades heme (releasing Fe2+ and CO) in its catalytic core and binds Fe3+-heme at HRMs located within an unstructured region of the enzyme, and the transcriptional regulator Rev-erbβ, a protein that binds Fe3+-heme at an HRM and is involved in CO sensing. We will discuss these and other proteins as they relate to cellular heme composition, homeostasis, and trafficking. In addition, we will discuss the HRM-containing family of proteins and how the stability and activity of these proteins are regulated in a dependent manner through the HRMs. Then, after reviewing CO-mediated protein regulation of heme proteins, we turn our attention to the involvement of heme, HRMs, and CO in circadian rhythms. In sum, we stress the importance of understanding the various roles of heme and the distribution of the different heme pools as they relate to the heme redox state, CO, and heme binding affinities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela S. Fleischhacker
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Anindita Sarkar
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Liu Liu
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Stephen W. Ragsdale
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Using Diatom and Apicomplexan Models to Study the Heme Pathway of Chromera velia. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22126495. [PMID: 34204357 PMCID: PMC8233740 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme biosynthesis is essential for almost all living organisms. Despite its conserved function, the pathway’s enzymes can be located in a remarkable diversity of cellular compartments in different organisms. This location does not always reflect their evolutionary origins, as might be expected from the history of their acquisition through endosymbiosis. Instead, the final subcellular localization of the enzyme reflects multiple factors, including evolutionary origin, demand for the product, availability of the substrate, and mechanism of pathway regulation. The biosynthesis of heme in the apicomonad Chromera velia follows a chimeric pathway combining heme elements from the ancient algal symbiont and the host. Computational analyses using different algorithms predict complex targeting patterns, placing enzymes in the mitochondrion, plastid, endoplasmic reticulum, or the cytoplasm. We employed heterologous reporter gene expression in the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii and the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum to experimentally test these predictions. 5-aminolevulinate synthase was located in the mitochondria in both transfection systems. In T. gondii, the two 5-aminolevulinate dehydratases were located in the cytosol, uroporphyrinogen synthase in the mitochondrion, and the two ferrochelatases in the plastid. In P. tricornutum, all remaining enzymes, from ALA-dehydratase to ferrochelatase, were placed either in the endoplasmic reticulum or in the periplastidial space.
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Ko YJ, Kim M, You SK, Shin SK, Chang J, Choi HJ, Jeong WY, Lee ME, Hwang DH, Han SO. Animal-free heme production for artificial meat in Corynebacterium glutamicum via systems metabolic and membrane engineering. Metab Eng 2021; 66:217-228. [PMID: 33945844 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2021.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recently, heme has attracted much attention as a main ingredient that mimics meat flavor in artificial meat in the food industry. Here, we developed Corynebacterium glutamicum capable of high-yield production of heme with systems metabolic engineering and modification of membrane surface. The combination of two precursor pathways based on thermodynamic information increased carbon flux toward heme and porphyrin intermediate biosynthesis. The co-overexpression of genes involved in a noncanonical downstream pathway and the gene encoding the transcriptional regulator DtxR significantly enhanced heme production. The overexpression of the putative heme exporters, knockout of heme-binding proteins, modification of the cell wall by chemical treatment, and reduction of intermediate UP III substantially improved heme secretion. The fed-batch fermentation showed a maximum heme titer of 309.18 ± 16.43 mg l-1, including secreted heme of 242.95 ± 11.45 mg l-1, a yield on glucose of 0.61 mmol mol-1, and productivity of 6.44 mg l-1h-1, which are the highest values reported to date. These results demonstrate that engineered C. glutamicum can be an attractive cell factory for animal-free heme production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Jin Ko
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Minhye Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Kyou You
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Kyu Shin
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Joonhee Chang
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Jin Choi
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Wu-Young Jeong
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeong-Eun Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hyeok Hwang
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Ok Han
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea.
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13
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Harding CR, Sidik SM, Petrova B, Gnädig NF, Okombo J, Herneisen AL, Ward KE, Markus BM, Boydston EA, Fidock DA, Lourido S. Genetic screens reveal a central role for heme metabolism in artemisinin susceptibility. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4813. [PMID: 32968076 PMCID: PMC7511413 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18624-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Artemisinins have revolutionized the treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria; however, resistance threatens to undermine global control efforts. To broadly explore artemisinin susceptibility in apicomplexan parasites, we employ genome-scale CRISPR screens recently developed for Toxoplasma gondii to discover sensitizing and desensitizing mutations. Using a sublethal concentration of dihydroartemisinin (DHA), we uncover the putative transporter Tmem14c whose disruption increases DHA susceptibility. Screens performed under high doses of DHA provide evidence that mitochondrial metabolism can modulate resistance. We show that disrupting a top candidate from the screens, the mitochondrial protease DegP2, lowers porphyrin levels and decreases DHA susceptibility, without significantly altering parasite fitness in culture. Deleting the homologous gene in P. falciparum, PfDegP, similarly lowers heme levels and DHA susceptibility. These results expose the vulnerability of heme metabolism to genetic perturbations that can lead to increased survival in the presence of DHA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare R Harding
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Saima M Sidik
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Boryana Petrova
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Nina F Gnädig
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - John Okombo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Kurt E Ward
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Benedikt M Markus
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - David A Fidock
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sebastian Lourido
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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14
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Kloehn J, Harding CR, Soldati-Favre D. Supply and demand-heme synthesis, salvage and utilization by Apicomplexa. FEBS J 2020; 288:382-404. [PMID: 32530125 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The Apicomplexa phylum groups important human and animal pathogens that cause severe diseases, encompassing malaria, toxoplasmosis, and cryptosporidiosis. In common with most organisms, apicomplexans rely on heme as cofactor for several enzymes, including cytochromes of the electron transport chain. This heme derives from de novo synthesis and/or the development of uptake mechanisms to scavenge heme from their host. Recent studies have revealed that heme synthesis is essential for Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites, as well as for the mosquito and liver stages of Plasmodium spp. In contrast, the erythrocytic stages of the malaria parasites rely on scavenging heme from the host red blood cell. The unusual heme synthesis pathway in Apicomplexa spans three cellular compartments and comprises enzymes of distinct ancestral origin, providing promising drug targets. Remarkably given the requirement for heme, T. gondii can tolerate the loss of several heme synthesis enzymes at a high fitness cost, while the ferrochelatase is essential for survival. These findings indicate that T. gondii is capable of salvaging heme precursors from its host. Furthermore, heme is implicated in the activation of the key antimalarial drug artemisinin. Recent findings established that a reduction in heme availability corresponds to decreased sensitivity to artemisinin in T. gondii and Plasmodium falciparum, providing insights into the possible development of combination therapies to tackle apicomplexan parasites. This review describes the microeconomics of heme in Apicomplexa, from supply, either from de novo synthesis or scavenging, to demand by metabolic pathways, including the electron transport chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Kloehn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, CMU, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Clare R Harding
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, University of Glasgow, UK
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15
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Pazderník M, Mareš J, Pilný J, Sobotka R. The antenna-like domain of the cyanobacterial ferrochelatase can bind chlorophyll and carotenoids in an energy-dissipative configuration. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:11131-11143. [PMID: 31167780 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.008434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Ferrochelatase (FeCh) is an essential enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of heme. Interestingly, in cyanobacteria, algae, and plants, FeCh possesses a conserved transmembrane chlorophyll a/b binding (CAB) domain that resembles the first and the third helix of light-harvesting complexes, including a chlorophyll-binding motif. Whether the FeCh CAB domain also binds chlorophyll is unknown. Here, using biochemical and radiolabeled precursor experiments, we found that partially inhibited activity of FeCh in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 leads to overproduction of chlorophyll molecules that accumulate in the thylakoid membrane and, together with carotenoids, bind to FeCh. We observed that pigments bound to purified FeCh are organized in an energy-dissipative conformation and further show that FeCh can exist in vivo as a monomer or a dimer depending on its own activity. However, pigmented FeCh was purified exclusively as a dimer. Separately expressed and purified FeCH CAB domain contained a pigment composition similar to that of full-length FeCh and retained its quenching properties. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that the CAB domain was acquired by a fusion between FeCh and a single-helix, high light-inducible protein early in the evolution of cyanobacteria. Following this fusion, the FeCh CAB domain with a functional chlorophyll-binding motif was retained in all currently known cyanobacterial genomes except for a single lineage of endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Our findings indicate that FeCh from Synechocystis exists mostly as a pigment-free monomer in cells but can dimerize, in which case its CAB domain creates a functional pigment-binding segment organized in an energy-dissipating configuration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Pazderník
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Třeboň, 379 81, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice 370 05, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Mareš
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Třeboň, 379 81, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice 370 05, Czech Republic.,Institute of Hydrobiology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice 370 05, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Pilný
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Třeboň, 379 81, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Sobotka
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Třeboň, 379 81, Czech Republic .,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice 370 05, Czech Republic
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16
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Stankeviciute G, Guan Z, Goldfine H, Klein EA. Caulobacter crescentus Adapts to Phosphate Starvation by Synthesizing Anionic Glycoglycerolipids and a Novel Glycosphingolipid. mBio 2019; 10:e00107-19. [PMID: 30940701 PMCID: PMC6445935 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00107-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Caulobacter crescentus adapts to phosphate starvation by elongating its cell body and a polar stalk structure. The stalk is an extension of the Gram-negative envelope containing inner and outer membranes as well as a peptidoglycan cell wall. Cellular elongation requires a 6- to 7-fold increase in membrane synthesis, yet phosphate limitation would preclude the incorporation of additional phospholipids. In the place of phospholipids, C. crescentus can synthesize several glycolipid species, including a novel glycosphingolipid (GSL-2). While glycosphingolipids are ubiquitous in eukaryotes, the presence of GSL-2 in C. crescentus is surprising since GSLs had previously been found only in Sphingomonas species, in which they play a role in outer membrane integrity. In this paper, we identify three proteins required for GSL-2 synthesis: CcbF catalyzes the first step in ceramide synthesis, while Sgt1 and Sgt2 sequentially glycosylate ceramides to produce GSL-2. Unlike in Sphingomonas, GSLs are nonessential in C. crescentus; however, the presence of ceramides does contribute to phage resistance and susceptibility to the cationic antimicrobial peptide polymyxin B. The identification of a novel lipid species specifically produced upon phosphate starvation suggests that bacteria may be able to synthesize a wider variety of lipids in response to stresses than previously observed. Uncovering these lipids and their functional relevance will provide greater insight into microbial physiology and environmental adaptation.IMPORTANCE Bacteria adapt to environmental changes in a variety of ways, including altering their cell shape. Caulobacter crescentus adapts to phosphate starvation by elongating its cell body and a polar stalk structure containing both inner and outer membranes. While we generally think of cellular membranes being composed largely of phospholipids, cellular elongation occurs when environmental phosphate, and therefore phospholipid synthesis, is limited. In order to adapt to these environmental constraints, C. crescentus synthesizes several glycolipid species, including a novel glycosphingolipid. This finding is significant because glycosphingolipids, while ubiquitous in eukaryotes, are extremely rare in bacteria. In this paper, we identify three proteins required for GSL-2 synthesis and demonstrate that they contribute to phage resistance. These findings suggest that bacteria may synthesize a wider variety of lipids in response to stresses than previously observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Stankeviciute
- Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Rutgers University-Camden, Camden, New Jersey, USA
| | - Ziqiang Guan
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Howard Goldfine
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Eric A Klein
- Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Rutgers University-Camden, Camden, New Jersey, USA
- Department of Biology, Rutgers University-Camden, Camden, New Jersey, USA
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17
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Shimizu T, Lengalova A, Martínek V, Martínková M. Heme: emergent roles of heme in signal transduction, functional regulation and as catalytic centres. Chem Soc Rev 2019; 48:5624-5657. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cs00268e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Molecular mechanisms of unprecedented functions of exchangeable/labile heme and heme proteins including transcription, DNA binding, protein kinase activity, K+ channel functions, cis–trans isomerization, N–N bond formation, and other functions are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toru Shimizu
- Department of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Science
- Charles University
- Prague 2
- Czech Republic
| | - Alzbeta Lengalova
- Department of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Science
- Charles University
- Prague 2
- Czech Republic
| | - Václav Martínek
- Department of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Science
- Charles University
- Prague 2
- Czech Republic
| | - Markéta Martínková
- Department of Biochemistry
- Faculty of Science
- Charles University
- Prague 2
- Czech Republic
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