Proteomic landscape of TGF-β1-induced fibrogenesis in renal fibroblasts

CCL7 and olfactory transduction pathway activation play an important role in the formation of CaOx and CaP kidney stones

Background: The deposition of calcium oxalate (CaOx) and calcium phosphate (CaP) is the most common cause of kidney stone disease (KSD). Whether KSDs caused by CaOx and CaP have common genetic targets or signaling pathways remained unclear. Methods: The present study utilized public data GSE73680 to analyze differentially expressed genes between CaOx or CaP tissues and normal tissues, respectively. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis of co-DEGs were performed. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed to identify hub genes, and the top hub gene was selected for gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). Finally, real-time PCR of patients' urine was performed to validate the bioinformatic results. Results: In total, 155 significantly co-upregulated DEGs and 64 co-downregulated DEGs were obtained from the datasets. The Gene Ontology analysis showed that DEGs were significantly enriched in chemical stimulus in sensory perception, detection of chemical stimulus in sensory perception of smell, and olfactory receptor activity. The KEGG analysis showed that the olfactory transduction pathway was significantly enriched. According to protein-protein interaction, 10 genes were identified as the hub genes, and CCL7 was the top hub gene. The olfactory transduction, maturity-onset diabetes of the young, linoleic acid metabolism, and fat digestion and absorption were significantly enriched in the high-CCL7 subgroup by GSEA. In total, 9 patients who had primarily CaOx mixed with some CaP stones and 9 healthy subjects were enrolled. The RT-PCR results showed that CCL7 level in the stone group was significantly higher than that in the control group (p < 0.05). For the olfactory transduction pathway, the expression of OR10A5, OR9A2, and OR1L3 was significantly upregulated in the stone group compared with the control group (p < 0.05). Conclusion: CCL7 may play a key role in the development of both CaOx and CaP, and this process may depend on olfactory transduction pathway activation.

Vitamin D3 analogue calcipotriol inhibits the profibrotic effects of transforming growth factor- β1 on pancreatic stellate cells

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the inhibitory effect of vitamin D3 analogue calcipotriol (Cal) on the fibrosis of pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) induced by TGF-β1 and the rationality of Cal use in alcoholic chronic pancreatitis (ACP).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Double-labeling immunofluorescence was used for the identification of VDR+PSCs in the pancreas of healthy controls (HC) and ACP patients. Van Gieson staining for examination of collagen fibers. RT-qPCR and Western Blot for determining the mRNAs and proteins of VDR, TGF-β1 and COL1A1 in the pancreas of ACP or in vitro PSCs. ELISA or LC-MS/MS for detection of serum TGF-β1 and COL1A1 or 25(OH)D3. The PSC line (RP-2 cell) was used for the determination of proteomic alterations in Cal plus TGF-β1 versus TGF-β1 and to examine the effect of VDR gene knockdown.

RESULTS

Enhanced expression of VDR was detected in RP-2 cells stimulated with alcohol (ALC) plus Cal versus Cal alone and in PSCs in the pancreas of ACP versus HC. The increased VDR+PSCs were positively correlated with the levels of COL1A1 mRNAs or areas of collagen deposition in the pancreas of ACP. TGF-β1 was overexpressed in the pancreas of ACP and ALC-treated RP-2 cells while 25(OH)D3 level in serum was significantly decreased in ACP versus HC. Through a VDR-dependent mechanism, Cal antagonized 16 profibrotic proteins in TGF-β1-induced RP-2 cells that included 7 extracellular matrix components, 2 cytoskeletal proteins, 2 fibrosis-associated factors (RUNX1 and TRAF2), TIMP-1, CCN1, integrin α11, an adhesion scaffold protein (TGFB1i1) and an enzyme mediating TGF-β1-induced fibrogenesis (ENPP1).

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that Cal administration may be a potential antifibrotic strategy via inhibiting TGF-β1-mediated PSC action during the development of ACP.

Mechanism of transforming growth factor-1 induce renal fibrosis based on transcriptome sequencing analysis

OBJECTIVES

To explore the mechanism of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) induce renal fibrosis.

METHODS

Renal fibroblast NRK-49F cells treated with and without TGF-β1 were subjected to RNA-seq analysis. DESeq2 was used for analysis. Differentially expressed genes were screened with the criteria of false discovery rate<0.05 and l o g 2 F C >1. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed for differentially expressed genes. Genes encoding transcription factors were further screened for differential expression genes. Then, the expression of these genes during renal fibrosis was verified using unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO)-induced mouse renal fibrosis model and a public gene expression dataset (GSE104954).

RESULTS

After TGF-β1 treatment for 6, 12 and 24 h, 552, 1209 and 1028 differentially expressed genes were identified, respectively. GO analysis indicated that these genes were significantly enriched in development, cell death, and cell migration. KEGG pathway analysis showed that in the early stage of TGF-β1 induction (TGF-β1 treatment for 6 h), the changes in Hippo, TGF-β and Wnt signaling pathways were observed, while in the late stage of TGF-β1 induction (TGF-β1 treatment for 24 h), the changes of extracellular matrix-receptor interaction, focal adhesion and adherens junction were mainly enriched. Among the 291 up-regulated differentially expressed genes treated with TGF-β1 for 6 h, 13 genes (Snai1, Irf8, Bhlhe40, Junb, Arid5a, Vdr, Lef1, Ahr, Foxo1, Myc, Tcf7, Foxc2, Glis1) encoded transcription factors. Validation in a cell model showed that TGF-β1 induced expression of 9 transcription factors (encoded by Snai1, Irf8, Bhlhe40, Junb, Arid5a, Vdr, Lef1, Myc, Tcf7), while the expression levels of the other 4 genes did not significantly change after TGF-β1 treatment. Validation results in UUO-induced mouse renal fibrosis model showed that Snai1, Irf8, Bhlhe40, Junb, Arid5a, Myc and Tcf7 were up-regulated after UUO, Vdr was down-regulated and there was no significant change in Lef1. Validation based on the GSE104954 dataset showed that IRF8 was significantly overexpressed in the renal tubulointerstitium of patients with diabetic nephropathy or IgA nephropathy, MYC was highly expressed in diabetic nephropathy, and the expressions of the other 7 genes were not significantly different compared with the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

TGF-β1 induces differentially expressed genes in renal fibroblasts, among which Irf8 and Myc were identified as potential targets of chronic kidney disease and renal fibrosis.

Gastrodin attenuates renal injury and collagen deposition via suppression of the TGF-β1/Smad2/3 signaling pathway based on network pharmacology analysis

Background: Gastrodin has been widely used clinically in China as an antihypertensive drug. However, its effect on hypertensive renal injury is yet to be elucidated. The current study aimed to investigate the effects of gastrodin on hypertensive renal injury and its underlying mechanisms by network pharmacology analysis and validation in vivo and in vitro. Methods: A total of 10 spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) were randomly categorized into the following two groups: SHR and SHR + Gastrodin groups. Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats were used as the control group (n = 5). The SHR + Gastrodin group was intragastrically administered gastrodin (3.5 mg/kg/day), and the rats in both WKY and SHR groups were intragastrically administered an equal amount of double-distilled water for 10 weeks. Hematoxylin-eosin, Masson's trichrome, and Sirius red staining were used to detect the pathological changes and collagen content in the renal tissues. Network pharmacology analysis was performed to explore its potential targets and related pathways. In vitro, the CCK-8 assay was used to determine the cell viability. Immunohistochemistry and western-blotting analyses were employed to assess the protein expression associated with renal fibrosis and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) pathway-related proteins in the renal tissues or in TGF-β1-stimulated rat kidney fibroblast cell lines (NRK-49F). Results: Gastrodin treatment attenuates renal injury and pathological alterations in SHRs, including glomerular sclerosis and atrophy, epithelial cell atrophy, and tubular dilation. Gastrodin also reduced the accumulation of collagen in the renal tissues of SHRs, which were confirmed by downregulation of α-SMA, collagen I, collagen III protein expression. Network pharmacology analysis identified TGFB1 and SMAD2 as two of lead candidate targets of gastrodin on against hypertensive renal injury. Consistently, gastrodin treatment downregulated the increase of the protein expression of TGF-β1, and ratios of both p-Smad2/Smad2 and p-Samd3/Smad3 in renal tissues of SHRs. In vitro, gastrodin (25-100 μM) treatment significantly reversed the upregulation of α-SMA, fibronectin, collagen I, as well as p-Smad2 and p-Smad3 protein expressions without affecting the cell viability of TGF-β1 stimulated NRK-49F cells. Conclusion: Gastrodin treatment significantly attenuates hypertensive renal injury and renal fibrosis and suppresses TGF-β1/Smad2/3 signaling in vivo and in vitro.

Proteomic characterisation of prostate cancer intercellular communication reveals cell type-selective signalling and TMSB4X-dependent fibroblast reprogramming

BACKGROUND

In prostate cancer, the tumour microenvironment (TME) represents an important regulator of disease progression and response to treatment. In the TME, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a key role in tumour progression, however the mechanisms underpinning fibroblast-cancer cell interactions are incompletely resolved. Here, we address this by applying cell type-specific labelling with amino acid precursors (CTAP) and mass spectrometry (MS)-based (phospho)proteomics to prostate cancer for the first time.

METHODS

Reciprocal interactions between PC3 prostate cancer cells co-cultured with WPMY-1 prostatic fibroblasts were characterised using CTAP-MS. Signalling network changes were determined using Metascape and Enrichr and visualised using Cytoscape. Thymosin β4 (TMSB4X) overexpression was achieved via retroviral transduction and assayed by ELISA. Cell motility was determined using Transwell and random cell migration assays and expression of CAF markers by indirect immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

WPMY-1 cells co-cultured with PC3s demonstrated a CAF-like phenotype, characterised by enhanced PDGFRB expression and alterations in signalling pathways regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition, cytoskeletal organisation and cell polarisation. In contrast, co-cultured PC3 cells exhibited more modest network changes, with alterations in mTORC1 signalling and regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. The expression of the actin binding protein TMSB4X was significantly decreased in co-cultured WPMY-1 fibroblasts, and overexpression of TMSB4X in fibroblasts decreased migration of co-cultured PC3 cells, reduced fibroblast motility, and protected the fibroblasts from being educated to a CAF-like phenotype by prostate cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the potential of CTAP-MS to characterise intercellular communication within the prostate TME and identify regulators of cellular crosstalk such as TMSB4X.

Intimate intertwining of the pathogenesis of hypoxia and systemic sclerosis: A transcriptome integration analysis

OBJECTIVES

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is an autoimmune disease caused by various pathogenic factors, including hypoxia. Hypoxia stimulates the production of the extracellular matrix to promote fibrosis. However, the integrated function and the underlying mechanism of hypoxia in SSc are unclear.

METHODS

In the present study, we used Agilent SurePrint G3 Human Gene Expression v3 for the transcriptional sequencing of fibroblasts with and without hypoxia to detect differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in hypoxia. We analyzed the results with the transcriptome data of SSc lesions (GSE95065) to select the co-DEGs. Then, Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analyses were performed on the basis of the co-DEGs using the R package ClusterProfiler, which showed that hypoxia and cross talk of hypoxia with other pathogenic factors are involved in the pathogenesis of SSc. Furthermore, we constructed a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of co-DEGs and screened two significant functional expression modules.

RESULTS

We identified nine hub genes (ALDH1A1, EGF, NOX4, LYN, DNTT, PTGS2, TKT, ACAA2, and ALDH3A1). These genes affect the pentose phosphate pathway, oxidative stress, and lipolysis.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides insights into the mechanisms underlying the effects of hypoxia on SSc pathogenesis, which will help to better understand SSc pathogenesis and develop new therapeutic strategies for SSc.

CCL7 as a novel inflammatory mediator in cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and kidney disease

Chemokines are key components in the pathology of chronic diseases. Chemokine CC motif ligand 7 (CCL7) is believed to be associated with cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and kidney disease. CCL7 may play a role in inflammatory events by attracting macrophages and monocytes to further amplify inflammatory processes and contribute to disease progression. However, CCL7-specific pathological signaling pathways need to be further confirmed in these chronic diseases. Given the multiple redundancy system among chemokines and their receptors, further experimental and clinical studies are needed to clarify whether direct CCL7 inhibition mechanisms could be a promising therapeutic approach to attenuating the development of cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, and kidney disease.

The Protective Effect of Ursolic Acid on Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction in Rats by Activating the Nrf2/HO-1 Antioxidant Signaling Pathway

Renal interstitial fibrosis is a common pathological feature of a variety of kidney diseases that progress to end-stage renal disease. The excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) is a typical pathological change of renal interstitial fibrosis. The production of reactive oxygen species in renal tubules is an important factor leading to the development of renal interstitial fibrosis. Ursolic acid (UA) is a natural pentacyclic triterpene carboxylic acid compound widely found in plants. It has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor cell proliferation effects. It can reduce the development of fibrosis by inhibiting the oxidative stress response of the liver; there is currently no relevant research on whether UA can protect the renal interstitial fibrosis by resisting oxidative stress in the kidneys. In this study, our purpose is to investigate the effect of ursolic acid on renal interstitial fibrosis after unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) in rats and its related mechanisms. We established a UUO model by surgically ligating the right ureter of the rat and instilling UA preparation (40 mg/kg/d) through the stomach after the operation, once a day for 7 days. We found that UUO caused impaired renal function, increased pathological damage, increased renal interstitial fibrosis, increased apoptosis, increased oxidative stress damage, and decreased antioxidants. However, after UA preparations were given, the abovementioned damage was significantly improved. At the same time, we also found that UA preparations can significantly increase the relative expression of Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway in kidney tissue after UUO. In order to further verify whether the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway is involved in the development of renal interstitial fibrosis, we injected zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP, 45 umol/kg), a specific blocker of the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway, into the intraperitoneal cavity after UUO in rats and before the gastric perfusion of ursolic acid preparations. Subsequently, we observed that the protective effect of UA on renal interstitial fibrosis after UUO in rats was reversed. Combining all the research results, we proved that UA has a protective effect on renal interstitial fibrosis after UUO in rats, which may be achieved by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway.

Antifibrotic activities of Scutellariae Radix extracts and flavonoids: Comparative proteomics reveals distinct and shared mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Scutellariae Radix (SR), the root of Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, and SR flavonoids have antifibrotic activities. It remains obscure, however, amongst SR aqueous extract (SRA), SR methanolic extract (SRM) and five major SR flavonoids (baicalein, baicalin, wogonoside, wogonin and oroxyloside), which ones are the most promising antifibrotics and what their mechanisms are.

PURPOSE

To compare the antifibrotic activities of SR extracts and flavonoids, and the proteomic signatures of selected SR extract and flavonoid, versus IN1130 phosphate, an antifibrotic positive control (abbreviated as IN1130), in TGF-β1-induced in vitro model of fibrosis in NRK-49F renal fibroblasts.

METHODS

Isobaric labelling-based mass spectrometry was used for proteomic studies. Differentially expressed proteins were further analyzed using Gene Ontology annotation enrichment, protein-protein interaction network analysis and pathway analysis. Selected proteins of interest were validated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

Baicalein was the SR flavonoid with the best efficacy-toxicity ratio. SRM contained 8-fold more flavonoids and was more potently antifibrotic than SRA. Proteomic analysis of cells treated by TGF-β1, with or without baicalein (40 and 80 μM), SRM (40 and 80 μg/ml) and IN1130 (1 μM) suggested that baicalein, SRM and IN1130 all repressed TGF-β1-induced ribosomal proteins in cell lysates, while baicalein and SRM, but not IN1130, regulated the intracellular lysosome pathway; secretomic analysis suggested that 40 and 80 μg/ml SRM and 80 μM baicalein, but not IN1130 and 40 μM baicalein increased ribosomal proteins in conditioned media, whereas only baicalein regulated the lysosome pathway. ELISA verified secretomic findings that baicalein, SRM and IN1130 repressed TGF-β1-induced PAI-1 (Serpine1), Plod2, Ctgf (Ccn2), Ccl2 and Ccl7; baicalein and IN1130, but not SRM, reversed TGF-β1-induced Cyr61 (Ccn1) and Tsku; only baicalein reversed TGF-β1 repression of Mmp3; only IN1130 reversed TGF-β1-repressed Nov (Ccn3). ELISA validated cell-lysate proteomic findings that baicalein, SRM and IN1130 all reversed TGF-β1-induced Enpp1; only IN1130 reversed TGF-β1-induced Impdh2 and Sqstm1 and TGF-β1-repressed Aldh3a1. Baicalein and SRM induced Ccdc80, while only baicalein induced Tfrc.

CONCLUSION

Baicalein, SRM and IN1130 repress TGF-β1-induced fibrogenesis in renal fibroblasts by regulating overlapping protein targets and biological pathways. Our findings offer a comprehensive view of shared, drug- and dose-specific pharmacological and toxicological mechanisms and provide a valuable resource for further research and development of more efficacious and safer antifibrotics.

Heterogeneity and dynamic of EMT through the plasticity of ribosome and mRNA translation

Growing evidence exposes translation and its translational machinery as key players in establishing and maintaining physiological and pathological biological processes. Examining translation may not only provide new biological insight but also identify novel innovative therapeutic targets in several fields of biology, including that of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT is currently considered as a dynamic and reversible transdifferentiation process sustaining the transition from an epithelial to mesenchymal phenotype, known to be mainly driven by transcriptional reprogramming. However, it seems that the characterization of EMT plasticity is challenging, relying exclusively on transcriptomic and epigenetic approaches. Indeed, heterogeneity in EMT programs was reported to depend on the biological context. Here, by reviewing the involvement of translational control, translational machinery and ribosome biogenesis characterizing the different types of EMT, from embryonic and adult physiological to pathological contexts, we discuss the added value of integrating translational control and its machinery to depict the heterogeneity and dynamics of EMT programs.

Integrative Studies of Human Cord Blood Derived Mononuclear Cells and Umbilical Cord Derived Mesenchyme Stem Cells in Ameliorating Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a common pulmonary complication observed in preterm infants that is composed of multifactorial pathogenesis. Current strategies, albeit successful in moderately reducing morbidity and mortality of BPD, failed to draw overall satisfactory conclusion. Here, using a typical mouse model mimicking hallmarks of BPD, we revealed that both cord blood-derived mononuclear cells (CB-MNCs) and umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSCs) are efficient in alleviating BPD. Notably, infusion of CB-MNCs has more prominent effects in preventing alveolar simplification and pulmonary vessel loss, restoring pulmonary respiratory functions and balancing inflammatory responses. To further elucidate the underlying mechanisms within the divergent therapeutic effects of UC-MSC and CB-MNC, we systematically investigated the long noncoding RNA (lncRNA)-microRNA (miRNA)-messenger RNA (mRNA) and circular RNA (circRNA)-miRNA-mRNA networks by whole-transcriptome sequencing. Importantly, pathway analysis integrating Gene Ontology (GO)/Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)/gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) method indicates that the competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network is mainly related to the regulation of GTPase activity (GO: 0043087), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (ERK1) and ERK2 signal cascade (GO: 0070371), chromosome regulation (GO: 0007059), and cell cycle control (GO: 0044770). Through rigorous selection of the lncRNA/circRNA-based ceRNA network, we demonstrated that the hub genes reside in UC-MSC- and CB-MNC-infused networks directed to the function of cell adhesion, motor transportation (Cdk13, Lrrn2), immune homeostasis balance, and autophagy (Homer3, Prkcd) relatively. Our studies illustrate the first comprehensive mRNA-miRNA-lncRNA and mRNA-miRNA-circRNA networks in stem cell-infused BPD model, which will be valuable in identifying reliable biomarkers or therapeutic targets for BPD pathogenesis and shed new light in the priming and conditioning of UC-MSCs or CB-MNCs in the treatment of neonatal lung injury.

Ultrasound-Guided Transplantation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Improves Adriamycin Nephropathy in Rats Through the RIPK3/MLKL and TLR-4/NF-κB Signaling

Bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC) treatment has been shown to be beneficial for Adriamycin nephropathy (ADR). However, the low transplantation rate is still the key factor that affects this strategy. This study is the first to investigate the efficacy and potential mechanism of ultrasound-guided transrenal arterial transfer of BMSCs for the treatment of ADR in rats. The ADR rat model was established by two injections of doxorubicin. In addition, the rats were randomly divided into four groups (10 rats per group): the normal group (no treatment), the medium control group (treated with medium), the Adriamycin group (treated with phosphate buffer), and the BMSC group (treated with BMSCs). After 4 weeks, the levels of serum creatinine (SCr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and urine albumin (ALb) were measured. In addition, pathological changes in kidney tissue were evaluated by pathological sectioning and electron microscopy. Western blotting was used to determine the levels of proteins in rat kidneys. Ultrasound-guided renal artery transplantation of BMSCs reduced the levels of SCr, BUN, and ALb and improved the pathological structure of rat kidneys compared with those in the Adriamycin group. This treatment inhibited renal cell necrosis by reducing the expression of receptor-interacting Serine/threonine Kinase 3 (RIPK3) and Mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase (MLKL) and inhibited renal inflammation and fibrosis by reducing the expression of Toll-Like receptor 4 (TLR4) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Our study shows that ultrasound-guided transrenal artery transplantation of BMSCs can improve adriamycin-induced renal injury in rats by regulating the RIPK3/MLKL and TLR-4/NF-κB pathways and inhibiting renal necrosis, inflammation, and fibrosis.

Early-life social experience affects offspring DNA methylation and later life stress phenotype

Studies in rodents and captive primates suggest that the early-life social environment affects future phenotype, potentially through alterations to DNA methylation. Little is known of these associations in wild animals. In a wild population of spotted hyenas, we test the hypothesis that maternal care during the first year of life and social connectedness during two periods of early development leads to differences in DNA methylation and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) later in life. Here we report that although maternal care and social connectedness during the den-dependent life stage are not associated with fGCMs, greater social connectedness during the subadult den-independent life stage is associated with lower adult fGCMs. Additionally, more maternal care and social connectedness after den independence correspond with higher global (%CCGG) DNA methylation. We also note differential DNA methylation near 5 genes involved in inflammation, immune response, and aging that may link maternal care with stress phenotype.

Estrogen/ER in anti-tumor immunity regulation to tumor cell and tumor microenvironment

As the essential sexual hormone, estrogen and its receptor has been proved to participate in the regulation of autoimmunity diseases and anti-tumor immunity. The adjustment of tumor immunity is related to the interaction between cancer cells, immune cells and tumor microenvironment, all of which is considered as the potential target in estrogen-induced immune system regulation. However, the specific mechanism of estrogen-induced immunity is poorly understood. Typically, estrogen causes the nuclear localization of estrogen/estrogen receptor complex and alternates the transcription pattern of target genes, leading to the reprogramming of tumor cells and differentiation of immune cells. However, the estrogen-induced non-canonical signal pathway activation is also crucial to the rapid function of estrogen, such as NF-κB, MAPK-ERK, and β-catenin pathway activation, which has not been totally illuminated. So, the investigation of estrogen modulatory mechanisms in these two manners is vital for the tumor immunity and can provide the potential for endocrine hormone targeted cancer immunotherapy. Here, this review summarized the estrogen-induced canonical and non-canonical signal transduction pathway and aimed to focus on the relationship among estrogen and cancer immunity as well as immune-related tumor microenvironment regulation. Results from these preclinical researches elucidated that the estrogen-target therapy has the application prospect of cancer immunotherapy, which requires the further translational research of these treatment strategies.

The Emerging Roles of CCN3 Protein in Immune-Related Diseases

The CCN proteins are a family of extracellular matrix- (ECM-) associated proteins which currently consist of six secreted proteins (CCN1-6). CCN3 protein, also known as nephroblastoma overexpressed protein (NOV), is a member of the CCN family with multiple biological functions, implicated in major cellular processes such as cell growth, migration, and differentiation. Recently, CCN3 has emerged as a critical regulator in a variety of diseases, including immune-related diseases, including rheumatology arthritis, osteoarthritis, and systemic sclerosis. In this review, we will briefly introduce the structure and function of the CCN3 protein and summarize the roles of CCN3 in immune-related diseases, which is essential to understand the functions of the CCN3 in immune-related diseases.