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Choi J, Choi Y, Jung YC, Lee J, Lee J, Park E, Kim IY. Effects of Game-Related Tasks for the Diagnosis and Classification of Gaming Disorder. BIOSENSORS 2024; 14:42. [PMID: 38248419 PMCID: PMC10812970 DOI: 10.3390/bios14010042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 01/01/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Gaming disorder (GD) is an addictive behavior characterized by an insatiable need to play video games and shares similar symptoms with the failure of self-control due to a decline in cognitive function. Current GD diagnostic and screening tools rely on questionnaires and behavioral observations related to cognitive functions to assess an individual's capacity to maintain self-control in everyday life. However, current GD screening approaches rely on subjective symptoms, and a reliable diagnosis requires long-term clinical follow-up. Recent studies have measured biosignals along with cognitive functional tasks to provide objectivity to GD diagnosis and to acquire immediate results. However, people with GD are hypersensitive to game-related cues, so their responses may vary depending on the type of stimuli, and the difference in response to stimuli might manifest as a difference in the degree of change in the biosignal. Therefore, it is critical to choose the correct stimulus type when performing GD diagnostic tasks. In this study, we investigated the task dependence of cognitive decline in GD by comparing two cognitive functional tasks: a continuous performance task (CPT) and video game play. For this study, 69 young male adults were classified into either the gaming disorder group (GD, n = 39) or a healthy control group (HC, n = 30). CPT score, EEG signal (theta, alpha, and beta), and HRV-HF power were assessed. We observed differences in the left frontal region (LF) of the brain between the GD and HC groups during online video game play. The GD group also showed a significant difference in HF power of HRV between CPT and online video gaming. Furthermore, LF and HRV-HF significantly correlated with Young's Internet Addiction Test (Y-IAT) score, which is positively associated with impulsivity score. The amount of change in theta band activity in LF and HRV-HF-both biomarkers for changes in cognitive function-during online video game play suggests that people with GD express task-dependent cognitive decline compared with HC. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of quantifying individual self-regulation ability for gaming and underscore its importance for GD classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongbong Choi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngseok Choi
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Chul Jung
- Department of Psychiatry, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeyeon Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongshill Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunkyoung Park
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 31538, Republic of Korea
| | - In Young Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
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Georgiou EZ, Skondra M, Charalampopoulou M, Felemegkas P, Pachi A, Stafylidou G, Papazachariou D, Perneczky R, Thomopoulos V, Politis A, Leroi I, Economou P, Alexopoulos P. Validation of the test for finding word retrieval deficits (WoFi) in detecting Alzheimer's disease in a naturalistic clinical setting. Eur J Ageing 2023; 20:29. [PMID: 37389678 DOI: 10.1007/s10433-023-00772-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Detecting impaired naming capacity contributes to the detection of mild (MildND) and major (MajorND) neurocognitive disorder due to Alzheimer's disease (AD). The Test for Finding Word retrieval deficits (WoFi) is a new, 50-item, auditory stimuli-based instrument. OBJECTIVE The study aimed to adapt WoFi to the Greek language, to develop a short version of WoFi (WoFi-brief), to compare the item frequency and the utility of both instruments with the naming subtest of the widely used Addenbrooke's cognitive examination III (ACEIIINaming) in detecting MildND and MajorND due to AD. METHODS This cross-sectional, validation study included 99 individuals without neurocognitive disorder, as well as 114 and 49 patients with MildND and MajorND due to AD, respectively. The analyses included categorical principal components analysis using Cramer's V, assessment of the frequency of test items based on corpora of television subtitles, comparison analyses, Kernel Fisher discriminant analysis models, proportional odds logistic regression (POLR) models and stratified repeated random subsampling used to recursive partitioning to training and validation set (70/30 ratio). RESULTS WoFi and WoFi-brief, which consists of 16 items, have comparable item frequency and utility and outperform ACEIIINaming. According to the results of the discriminant analysis, the misclassification error was 30.9%, 33.6% and 42.4% for WoFi, WoFi-brief and ACEIIINaming, respectively. In the validation regression model including WoFi the mean misclassification error was 33%, while in those including WoFi-brief and ACEIIINaming it was 31% and 34%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS WoFi and WoFi-brief are more effective in detecting MildND and MajorND due to AD than ACEIIINaming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni-Zacharoula Georgiou
- Mental Health Services, Patras University General Hospital, Department of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Maria Skondra
- Mental Health Services, Patras University General Hospital, Department of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Marina Charalampopoulou
- Mental Health Services, Patras University General Hospital, Department of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Panagiotis Felemegkas
- Mental Health Services, Patras University General Hospital, Department of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Asimina Pachi
- Mental Health Services, Patras University General Hospital, Department of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Georgia Stafylidou
- Department of Speech and Language Therapy, School of Health Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Papazachariou
- Department of Philology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Robert Perneczky
- Division of Mental Health in Older Adults and Alzheimer Therapy and Research Center, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, Munich, Germany
- Ageing Epidemiology (AGE) Research Unit, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, The Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, UK
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Munich, Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neurosciences (SITraN), University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Vasileios Thomopoulos
- Large-Scale Machine Learning and Cloud Data Engineering Laboratory (ML@Cloud-Lab), Department of Computer Engineering and Informatics, School of Engineering, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Antonios Politis
- First Department of Psychiatry, Eginition Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neuropsychiatry, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, USA
| | - Iracema Leroi
- Global Brain Health Institute, Medical School, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
| | - Polychronis Economou
- Department of Civil Engineering (Statistics), School of Engineering, University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Panagiotis Alexopoulos
- Mental Health Services, Patras University General Hospital, Department of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Patras, Greece.
- Global Brain Health Institute, Medical School, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Republic of Ireland.
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Klinikum rechts der isar, Faculty of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
- Patras Dementia Day Care Centre, Patras, Greece.
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Cancer A, Iannello P, Salvi C, Antonietti A. Executive functioning and divergent thinking predict creative problem-solving in young adults and elderlies. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2023; 87:388-396. [PMID: 35366100 PMCID: PMC9928931 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-022-01678-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The role of executive functioning in creative thinking is under debate. Some authors suggested that increased inhibitory control, a component of executive functioning, is detrimental to creative solutions, whereas others argued that executive functions are central to creative problem-solving, thus questioning Guilford's classical distinction between divergent and convergent thinking. Executive functions decline with age. In this study, we investigated the contributions of executive functioning and its age-related decline and divergent thinking to creative problem-solving. To this aim, we divided our sample of sixty healthy adults into two age groups of young adults (20-26 years) and elderly (60-70 years) and we assessed their creative problem-solving abilities (using the compound remote associate problems) as well as other potential cognitive predictors of creative problem-solving (i.e., impulsivity, divergent thinking, verbal working memory, and decision-making style). A linear regression model revealed that the ability to solve problems creatively is negatively predicted by older age and impulsivity, while positively predicted by divergent thinking and verbal working memory. These findings reveal a combined contribution of executive functions and divergent thinking to creative problem-solving, suggesting that both convergent and divergent processes should be considered in interventions to contrast age-related decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Cancer
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy.
| | - Paola Iannello
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
| | - Carola Salvi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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Sakurai K, Okada E, Anzai S, Tamura R, Shiraishi I, Inamura N, Kobayashi S, Sato M, Matsumoto T, Kudo K, Sugawara Y, Hisatsune T. Protein-Balanced Dietary Habits Benefit Cognitive Function in Japanese Older Adults. Nutrients 2023; 15:nu15030770. [PMID: 36771475 PMCID: PMC9920661 DOI: 10.3390/nu15030770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Since daily dietary habits can affect cognitive function, dietary patterns such as the Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay diet have been proposed as interventions to slow cognitive decline. However, because dietary habits vary widely among different food cultures, it is necessary to establish dietary pattern intervention methods that are appropriate for each population. Therefore, in this study, the dietary patterns of elderly Japanese individuals were classified using cluster analysis, and their relationship with cognitive function was investigated. We then modeled the dietary patterns and applied them to another cohort of elderly Japanese individuals to determine whether differences in dietary patterns could predict cognitive decline. One hundred and fifty older adults ≥ 65 years of age in the community were recruited. Their daily food intake and cognitive function were measured using the brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire and Montreal Cognitive Assessment, respectively. K-means cluster analysis identified a high-carbohydrate (HC) dietary pattern with high cereal intake and a protein-balanced (PB) dietary pattern with high intake of legumes, vegetables, seafood, meat, and eggs. Cognitive function was significantly higher in the PB group than in the HC group. Furthermore, to classify the new data into HC and PB patterns, a classification model was created by discriminant analysis using food groups with significantly different intakes among dietary patterns. Next, we recruited 267 new older adults ≥ 65 years of age and measured food intake and cognitive function assessed using the memory performance index score. Individuals with cognitive decline were identified and their detailed cognitive functions were assessed using the neurocognitive index score. Cognitive function was significantly impaired in the HC pattern in both the general elderly and cognitively impaired cohorts. These findings suggest that a dietary pattern of low carbohydrate and high protein intake is associated with good cognitive function in elderly Japanese individuals. Classification by these dietary patterns can predict cognitive reservation in community-dwelling older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Sakurai
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Erika Okada
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Saya Anzai
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Risako Tamura
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Izumi Shiraishi
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Noriko Inamura
- Urban Design Center Kashiwanoha (UDCK), Kashiwa 277-0871, Japan
- Community Health Promotion Laboratory, Mitsui Fudosan, Co., Ltd., Kashiwa 277-8519, Japan
| | - Satoru Kobayashi
- Community Health Promotion Laboratory, Mitsui Fudosan, Co., Ltd., Kashiwa 277-8519, Japan
| | - Mikako Sato
- Research & Development Center, NH Foods Ltd., Tsukuba 300-2646, Japan
| | - Takashi Matsumoto
- Research & Development Center, NH Foods Ltd., Tsukuba 300-2646, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Kudo
- Lifestyle Research Office, NH Foods Ltd., Shinagawa, Tokyo 141-6014, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Sugawara
- Research & Development Center, NH Foods Ltd., Tsukuba 300-2646, Japan
| | - Tatsuhiro Hisatsune
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-04-7136-3632
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Sakurai K, Toshimitsu T, Okada E, Anzai S, Shiraishi I, Inamura N, Kobayashi S, Sashihara T, Hisatsune T. Effects of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum OLL2712 on Memory Function in Older Adults with Declining Memory: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14204300. [PMID: 36296983 PMCID: PMC9610166 DOI: 10.3390/nu14204300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of probiotics is expected to be an intervention in neurodegenerative conditions that cause dementia owing to their ability to modulate neuroinflammatory responses via the microbiome-gut–brain axis. Therefore, we selected Lactiplantibacillus plantarum OLL2712 (OLL2712), the optimal anti-inflammatory lactic acid bacteria strain with high IL-10-inducing activity in immune cells, and aimed to verify its protective effects on memory function in older adults. A 12-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was performed with older adults over the age of 65 years with declining memory. The participants consumed either powder containing heat-treated OLL2712 cells or placebo. Memory function was assessed using a computer-assisted cognitive test, Cognitrax. Daily dietary nutrient intake was assessed using the Brief-type Self-administered Diet History Questionnaire (BDHQ). The composition of the gut microbiota was analyzed by fecal DNA extraction and 16S rDNA sequencing. Data from 78 participants who completed the entire procedure were analyzed, and significant improvements in composite memory and visual memory scores were observed in the active group, after accounting for the effect of daily nutritional intake (p = 0.044 and p = 0.021, respectively). In addition, the active group had a lower abundance ratio of Lachnoclostridium, Monoglobus, and Oscillibacter genera, which have been reported to be involved in inflammation. The present study suggests that OLL2712 ingestion has protective effects against memory function decline in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Sakurai
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Takayuki Toshimitsu
- Food Microbiology Research Laboratories, Applied Microbiology Research Department, Division of Research and Development, Meiji Co., Ltd., Hachiouji 192-0919, Japan
| | - Erika Okada
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Saya Anzai
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Izumi Shiraishi
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
| | - Noriko Inamura
- Urban Design Center Kashiwanoha (UDCK), Kashiwa 277-0871, Japan
- Community Health Promotion Laboratory, Mitsui Fudosan, Co., Ltd., Kashiwa 277-8519, Japan
| | - Satoru Kobayashi
- Community Health Promotion Laboratory, Mitsui Fudosan, Co., Ltd., Kashiwa 277-8519, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Sashihara
- Food Microbiology Research Laboratories, Applied Microbiology Research Department, Division of Research and Development, Meiji Co., Ltd., Hachiouji 192-0919, Japan
| | - Tatsuhiro Hisatsune
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa 277-8562, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-04-7136-3632
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Ou J, Xu C, Fu Y, Chen Q, Han Y, Yao L. Validation of the cognitive performance scale of the interRAI-PAC and montreal cognitive assessment. Nurs Open 2022; 10:714-720. [PMID: 36039029 PMCID: PMC9834541 DOI: 10.1002/nop2.1337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS The Cognitive Performance Scale (CPS), a minimum data set instrument of the interRAI, was initially designed to evaluate cognition in residential care and has demonstrated strong diagnostic accuracy. In this study, we evaluated the diagnostic accuracy and validity of the CPS in the post-acute care setting among post-stroke patients hospitalized in rehabilitation wards. DESIGN Mixed methods. METHODS The observational study was conducted in rehabilitation wards. Diagnostic accuracy was used to explore the level of agreement between CPS and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in 321 inpatients (62.12 years; 68.2% male). RESULTS The diagnostic accuracy of the CPS was poor when MoCA was less than 24 as a gold standard, with an area under the curve of 0.69 (standard error 0.03, 95% confidence interval = 0.62-0.75). The CPS had a poor to moderate correlation with MoCA (rs = -.35).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jibing Ou
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical UniversityKunmingChina
| | - Chunyan Xu
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical UniversityKunmingChina
| | - Yuton Fu
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical UniversityKunmingChina
| | - Qian Chen
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical UniversityKunmingChina
| | - Yongqian Han
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical UniversityKunmingChina
| | - Liqing Yao
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical UniversityKunmingChina
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Sato T, Sakai K, Okumura M, Kitagawa T, Takatsu H, Tanabe M, Komatsu T, Sakuta K, Umehara T, Murakami H, Mitsumura H, Matsushima M, Iguchi Y. Low dihomo-γ-linolenic acid is associated with susceptibility vessel sign in cardioembolism. Thromb Res 2022; 213:84-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2022.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Masuoka N, Lei C, Li H, Hisatsune T. Influence of Imidazole-Dipeptides on Cognitive Status and Preservation in Elders: A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13020397. [PMID: 33513893 PMCID: PMC7912684 DOI: 10.3390/nu13020397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The worldwide increase in the number of patients with dementia is becoming a growing problem, while Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a primary neurodegenerative disorder, accounts for more than 70% of all dementia cases. Research on the prevention or reduction of AD occurrence through food ingredients has been widely conducted. In particular, histidine-containing dipeptides, also known as imidazole dipeptides derived from meat, have received much attention. Imidazole dipeptides are abundant in meats such as poultry, fish, and pork. As evidenced by data from recent human intervention trials conducted worldwide, daily supplementation of carnosine and anserine, which are both imidazole dipeptides, can improve memory loss in the elderly and reduce the risk of developing AD. This article also summarizes the latest researches on the biochemical properties of imidazole dipeptides and their effects on animal models associated with age-related cognitive decline. In this review, we focus on the results of human intervention studies using supplements of poultry-derived imidazole dipeptides, including anserine and carnosine, affecting the preservation of cognitive function in the elderly, and discuss how imidazole dipeptides act in the brain to prevent age-related cognitive decline and the onset of dementia.
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Consumption of Oleic Acid on the Preservation of Cognitive Functions in Japanese Elderly Individuals. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13020284. [PMID: 33498506 PMCID: PMC7909548 DOI: 10.3390/nu13020284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
We recruited 154 community-dwelling elderly individuals and conducted a cohort study to find out the nutrient intake that is suitable for maintaining cognitive function in Japanese elders. Cognitive function was evaluated by the two functional tests, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and Wechsler Memory Scale-Delayed Recall (WMS-DR), and daily nutrient intake was estimated from a Brief-type Self-administered Diet History Questionnaire (BDHQ). By a multiple regression analysis, among the four major nutrients (protein, fat, carbohydrate and ash), we detected a significant correlation between the score of cognitive functions assessed by both MoCA and WMS-DR and daily consumption of fat (p = 0.0317 and p = 0.0111, respectively). Among categories of fatty acid, we found a significant correlation between the score of both MoCA and WMS-DR and consumption of monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) (p = 0.0157 and p = 0.0136, respectively). Finally, among MUFAs, we observed a significant correlation between the score of both MoCA and WMS-DR and consumption of oleic acid (p = 0.0405 and p = 0.0165, respectively). From these observations, we can propose that daily consumption of fat, especially in oleic acid, has a beneficial effect against cognitive decline in community-dwelling Japanese elderly individuals.
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