Neurotropic influenza A virus infection causes prion protein misfolding into infectious prions in neuroblastoma cells

Protective role of cytosolic prion protein against virus infection in prion-infected cells

Production of the amyloidogenic prion protein, PrPSc, which forms infectious protein aggregates, or prions, is a key pathogenic event in prion diseases. Functional prion-like protein aggregations, such as the mitochondrial adaptor protein MAVS and the inflammasome component protein ASC, have been identified to play a protective role in viral infections in mammalian cells. In this study, to investigate if PrPSc could play a functional role against external stimuli, we infected prion-infected cells with a neurotropic influenza A virus strain, IAV/WSN. We found that prion-infected cells were highly resistant to IAV/WSN infection. In these cells, NF-κB nuclear translocation was disturbed; therefore, mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (mtSOD) expression was suppressed, and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) was increased. The elevated mtROS subsequently activated NLRP3 inflammasomes, leading to the suppression of IAV/WSN-induced necroptosis. We also found that prion-infected cells accumulated a portion of PrP molecules in the cytosol, and that the N-terminal potential nuclear translocation signal of PrP impeded NF-κB nuclear translocation. These results suggest that PrPSc might play a functional role in protection against viral infections by stimulating the NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent antivirus mechanism through the cytosolic PrP-mediated disturbance of NF-κB nuclear translocation, which leads to suppression of mtSOD expression and consequently upregulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome activator mtROS.

IMPORTANCE

Cytosolic PrP has been detected in prion-infected cells and suggested to be involved in the neurotoxicity of prions. Here, we also detected cytosolic PrP in prion-infected cells. We further found that the nuclear translocation of NF-κB was disturbed in prion-infected cells and that the N-terminal potential nuclear translocation signal of PrP expressed in the cytosol disturbed the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Thus, the N-terminal nuclear translocation signal of cytosolic PrP might play a role in prion neurotoxicity. Prion-like protein aggregates in other protein misfolding disorders, including Alzheimer's disease were reported to play a protective role against various environmental stimuli. We here showed that prion-infected cells were partially resistant to IAV/WSN infection due to the cytosolic PrP-mediated disturbance of the nuclear translocation of NF-κB, which consequently activated NLRP3 inflammasomes after IAV/WSN infection. It is thus possible that prions could also play a protective role in viral infections.

Molecular Mechanisms Associated with Neurodegeneration of Neurotropic Viral Infection

Viral infections of the central nervous system (CNS) cause variable outcomes from acute to severe neurological sequelae with increased morbidity and mortality. Viral neuroinvasion directly or indirectly induces encephalitis via dysregulation of the immune response and contributes to the alteration of neuronal function and the degeneration of neuronal cells. This review provides an overview of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of virus-induced neurodegeneration. Neurotropic viral infections influence many aspects of neuronal dysfunction, including promoting chronic inflammation, inducing cellular oxidative stress, impairing mitophagy, encountering mitochondrial dynamics, enhancing metabolic rewiring, altering neurotransmitter systems, and inducing misfolded and aggregated pathological proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases. These pathogenetic mechanisms create a multidimensional injury of the brain that leads to specific neuronal and brain dysfunction. The understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the neurophathogenesis associated with neurodegeneration of viral infection may emphasize the strategies for prevention, protection, and treatment of virus infection of the CNS.

Systemic perturbations in amino acids/amino acid derivatives and tryptophan pathway metabolites associated with murine influenza A virus infection

BACKGROUND

Influenza A virus (IAV) is the only influenza virus causing flu pandemics (i.e., global epidemics of flu disease). Influenza (the flu) is a highly contagious disease that can be deadly, especially in high-risk groups. Worldwide, these annual epidemics are estimated to result in about 3 to 5 million cases of severe illness and in about 290,000 to 650,000 respiratory deaths. We intend to reveal the effect of IAV infection on the host's metabolism, immune response, and neurotoxicity by using a mouse IAV infection model.

METHODS

51 metabolites of murine blood plasma (33 amino acids/amino acid derivatives (AADs) and 18 metabolites of the tryptophan pathway) were analyzed by using Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry with Electrospray Ionization at the acute (7 days post-infection (dpi)), resolution (14 dpi), and recovery (21 dpi) stages of the virus infection in comparison with controls.

RESULTS

Among the 33 biogenic amino acids/AADs, the levels of five amino acids/AADs (1-methylhistidine, 5-oxoproline, α-aminobutyric acid, glutamine, and taurine) increased by 7 dpi, whereas the levels of ten amino acids/AADs (4-hydroxyproline, alanine, arginine, asparagine, cysteine, citrulline, glycine, methionine, proline, and tyrosine) decreased. By 14 dpi, the levels of one AAD (3-methylhistidine) increased, whereas the levels of five amino acids/AADs (α-aminobutyric acid, aminoadipic acid, methionine, threonine, valine) decreased. Among the 18 metabolites from the tryptophan pathway, the levels of kynurenine, quinolinic acid, hydroxykynurenine increased by 7 dpi, whereas the levels of indole-3-acetic acid and nicotinamide riboside decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data may facilitate understanding the molecular mechanisms of host responses to IAV infection and provide a basis for discovering potential new mechanistic, diagnostic, and prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for IAV infection.

Transcriptomic Profiling of Influenza A Virus-Infected Mouse Lung at Recovery Stage Using RNA Sequencing

Influenza A virus (IAV) is known to cause mild to severe respiratory illness. Under some conditions, the infection can lead to pneumonia (viral or bacterial), acute respiratory distress syndrome, and other complications that can be fatal, especially in vulnerable populations such as the elderly, young children, and individuals with underlying health conditions. Despite previous studies, little is known about the host immune response and neuroimmune interactions in IAV infection. Using RNA sequencing, we performed transcriptomic analysis of murine lung tissue 21 days post infection (dpi) with IAV (H1N1) in order to find the differentially expression genes (DEGs) related to the host immune response and neuroimmune interactions inside the lung during recovery. Among 792 DEGs, 434 genes were up-regulated, whereas 358 genes were down-regulated. The most prominent molecular functions of the up-regulated genes were related to the immune response and tissue repair, whereas a large proportion of the down-regulated genes were associated with neural functions. Although further molecular/functional studies need to be performed for these DEGs, our results facilitate the understanding of the host response (from innate immunity to adaptive immunity) and neuroimmune interactions in infected lungs at the recovery stage of IAV infection. These genes might have potential uses as mechanistic/diagnostic biomarkers and represent possible targets for anti-IAV therapies.

Potential Prion Involvement in Long COVID-19 Neuropathology, Including Behavior

Prion' is a term used to describe a protein infectious particle responsible for several neurodegenerative diseases in mammals, e.g., Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. The novelty is that it is protein based infectious agent not involving a nucleic acid genome as found in viruses and bacteria. Prion disorders exhibit, in part, incubation periods, neuronal loss, and induce abnormal folding of specific normal cellular proteins due to enhancing reactive oxygen species associated with mitochondria energy metabolism. These agents may also induce memory, personality and movement abnormalities as well as depression, confusion and disorientation. Interestingly, some of these behavioral changes also occur in COVID-19 and mechanistically include mitochondrial damage caused by SARS-CoV-2 and subsequenct production of reactive oxygen species. Taken together, we surmise, in part, long COVID may involve the induction of spontaneous prion emergence, especially in individuals susceptible to its origin may thus explain some of its manesfestions post-acute viral infection.

Enterovirus infection and its relationship with neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are increasingly common, especially in populations with higher life expectancies. They are associated mainly with protein metabolism and structure changes, leading to neuronal cell death. Viral infections affect these cellular processes and may be involved in the etiology of several neurological illnesses, particularly NDs. Enteroviruses (EVs) frequently infect the central nervous system (CNS), causing neurological disease. Inflammation, disruption of the host autophagy machinery, and deregulation and accumulation/misfolding of proteins are the main alterations observed after infection by an EV. In this perspective, we discuss the most recent findings on the subject, examining the possible role of EVs in the development of NDs, and shedding light on the putative role played by these viruses in developing NDs.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease after COVID-19: infection-induced prion protein misfolding? A case report

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rare, fatal disease presenting with rapidly progressive neurological deficits caused by the accumulation of a misfolded form (PrPSc) of prion protein (PrPc). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a primarily respiratory syndrome caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2); many diverse neurological complications have been observed after COVID-19. We describe a young patient developing CJD two months after mild COVID-19. Presenting symptoms were visuospatial deficits and ataxia, evolving into a bedridden state with preserved consciousness and diffuse myoclonus. Diagnostic work-up was suggestive of CJD. The early age of onset and the short interval between respiratory and neurological symptoms might suggest a causal relationship: a COVID-19-related neuroinflammatory state may have induced the misfolding and subsequent aggregation of PrPSc. The present case emphasizes the link between neuroinflammation and protein misfolding. Further studies are needed to establish the role of SARS-CoV-2 as an initiator of neurodegeneration.

Common immunopathogenesis of central nervous system diseases: the protein-homeostasis-system hypothesis

There are hundreds of central nervous system (CNS) diseases, but there are few diseases for which the etiology or pathogenesis is understood as well as those of other organ-specific diseases. Cells in the CNS are selectively protected from external and internal insults by the blood–brain barrier. Thus, the neuroimmune system, including microglia and immune proteins, might control external or internal insults that the adaptive immune system cannot control or mitigate. The pathologic findings differ by disease and show a state of inflammation that reflects the relationship between etiological or inflammation-inducing substances and corresponding immune reactions. Current immunological concepts about infectious diseases and infection-associated immune-mediated diseases, including those in the CNS, can only partly explain the pathophysiology of disease because they are based on the idea that host cell injury is caused by pathogens. Because every disease involves etiological or triggering substances for disease-onset, the protein-homeostasis-system (PHS) hypothesis proposes that the immune systems in the host control those substances according to the size and biochemical properties of the substances. In this article, I propose a common immunopathogenesis of CNS diseases, including prion diseases, Alzheimer’s disease, and genetic diseases, through the PHS hypothesis.

Stress and viral insults do not trigger E200K PrP conversion in human cerebral organoids

Prion diseases are a group of rare, transmissible, and invariably fatal neurodegenerative diseases that affect both humans and animals. The cause of these diseases is misfolding of the prion protein into pathological isoforms called prions. Of all human prion diseases, 10-15% of cases are genetic and the E200K mutation, which causes familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), is the most prevalent. For both sporadic and genetic disease, it remains uncertain as to how initial protein misfolding is triggered. Prior studies have linked protein misfolding with oxidative stress insults, deregulated interactions with cellular cofactors, and viral infections. Our previous work developed a cerebral organoid (CO) model using human induced pluripotent stem cells containing the E200K mutation. COs are three-dimensional human neural tissues that permit the study of host genetics and environmental factors that contribute to disease onset. Isogenically matched COs with and without the E200K mutation were used to investigate the propensity of E200K PrP to misfold following cellular insults associated with oxidative stress. Since viral infections have also been associated with oxidative stress and neurodegenerative diseases, we additionally investigated the influence of Herpes Simplex Type-1 virus (HSV1), a neurotropic virus that establishes life-long latent infection in its host, on E200K PrP misfolding. While COs proved to be highly infectable with HSV1, neither acute nor latent infection, or direct oxidative stress insult, resulted in evidence of E200K prion misfolding. We conclude that misfolding into seeding-active PrP species is not readily induced by oxidative stress or HSV1 in our organoid system.

Viruses in neurodegenerative diseases: More than just suspects in crimes

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease are fatal neurological diseases that can be of idiopathic, genetic, or even infectious origin, as in the case of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. The etiological factors that lead to neurodegeneration remain unknown but likely involve a combination of aging, genetic risk factors, and environmental stressors. Accumulating evidence hints at an association of viruses with neurodegenerative disorders and suggests that virus-induced neuroinflammation and perturbation of neuronal protein quality control can be involved in the early steps of disease development. In this review, we focus on emerging evidence for a correlation between NDs and viral infection and discuss how viral manipulations of cellular processes can affect the formation and dissemination of disease-associated protein aggregates.

Prion Pathogenesis Revealed in a Series of the Special Issues "Prions and Prion Diseases"

Prion diseases are a group of devastating neurodegenerative disorders, which include Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans, and scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in animals [...].

Propagation and Dissemination Strategies of Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Agents in Mammalian Cells

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies or prion disorders are fatal infectious diseases that cause characteristic spongiform degeneration in the central nervous system. The causative agent, the so-called prion, is an unconventional infectious agent that propagates by converting the host-encoded cellular prion protein PrP into ordered protein aggregates with infectious properties. Prions are devoid of coding nucleic acid and thus rely on the host cell machinery for propagation. While it is now established that, in addition to PrP, other cellular factors or processes determine the susceptibility of cell lines to prion infection, exact factors and cellular processes remain broadly obscure. Still, cellular models have uncovered important aspects of prion propagation and revealed intercellular dissemination strategies shared with other intracellular pathogens. Here, we summarize what we learned about the processes of prion invasion, intracellular replication and subsequent dissemination from ex vivo cell models.

The first non-prion pathogen identified: neurotropic influenza virus

The cellular isoform of prion protein, designated PrP^C, is a membrane glycoprotein expressed most abundantly in the brain, particularly by neurons, and its conformational conversion into the abnormally folded, amyloidogenic isoform, PrP^Sc, is an underlying mechanism in the pathogenesis of prion diseases, a group of neurodegenerative disorders in humans and animals. Most cases of these diseases are sporadic and their aetiologies are unknown. We recently found that a neurotropic strain of influenza A virus (IAV/WSN) caused the conversion of PrP^C into PrP^Sc and the subsequent formation of infectious prions in mouse neuroblastoma cells after infection. These results show that IAV/WSN is the first non-prion pathogen capable of inducing the conversion of PrP^C into PrP^Sc and propagating infectious prions in cultured neuronal cells, and also provide the intriguing possibility that IAV infection in neurons might be a cause of or be associated with sporadic prion diseases. Here, we present our findings of the IAV/WSN-induced conversion of PrP^C into PrP^Sc and subsequent propagation of infectious prions, and also discuss the biological significance of the conversion of PrP^C into PrP^Sc in virus infections.

Prions and Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Focus on Alzheimer's Disease

Specific protein misfolding and aggregation are mechanisms underlying various neurodegenerative diseases such as prion disease and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The misfolded proteins are involved in prions, amyloid-β (Aβ), tau, and α-synuclein disorders; they share common structural, biological, and biochemical characteristics, as well as similar mechanisms of aggregation and self-propagation. Pathological features of AD include the appearance of plaques consisting of deposition of protein Aβ and neurofibrillary tangles formed by the hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Although it is not clear how protein aggregation leads to AD, we are learning that the cellular prion protein (PrPC) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. Herein, we first examined the pathogenesis of prion and AD with a focus on the contribution of PrPC to the development of AD. We analyzed the mechanisms that lead to the formation of a high affinity bond between Aβ oligomers (AβOs) and PrPC. Also, we studied the role of PrPC as an AβO receptor that initiates an AβO-induced signal cascade involving mGluR5, Fyn, Pyk2, and eEF2K linking Aβ and tau pathologies, resulting in the death of neurons in the central nervous system. Finally, we have described how the PrPC-AβOs interaction can be used as a new potential therapeutic target for the treatment of PrPC-dependent AD.

Virus Infection, Genetic Mutations, and Prion Infection in Prion Protein Conversion

Conformational conversion of the cellular isoform of prion protein, PrP^C, into the abnormally folded, amyloidogenic isoform, PrP^Sc, is an underlying pathogenic mechanism in prion diseases. The diseases manifest as sporadic, hereditary, and acquired disorders. Etiological mechanisms driving the conversion of PrP^C into PrP^Sc are unknown in sporadic prion diseases, while prion infection and specific mutations in the PrP gene are known to cause the conversion of PrP^C into PrP^Sc in acquired and hereditary prion diseases, respectively. We recently reported that a neurotropic strain of influenza A virus (IAV) induced the conversion of PrP^C into PrP^Sc as well as formation of infectious prions in mouse neuroblastoma cells after infection, suggesting the causative role of the neuronal infection of IAV in sporadic prion diseases. Here, we discuss the conversion mechanism of PrP^C into PrP^Sc in different types of prion diseases, by presenting our findings of the IAV infection-induced conversion of PrP^C into PrP^Sc and by reviewing the so far reported transgenic animal models of hereditary prion diseases and the reverse genetic studies, which have revealed the structure-function relationship for PrP^C to convert into PrP^Sc after prion infection.