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Sharma K, Mathesh K, Janmeda P, Nautiyal S, Lakshmi PS, Subash A, Mahajan S, Agrawal R, Pawde AM, Sharma GK. Production and characterization of biologicals for disease diagnosis and pathological evaluation of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV). J Virol Methods 2024; 329:114970. [PMID: 38830475 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2024.114970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) belong to the family Herpesviridae and cause a highly fatal hemorrhagic infection in elephants. EEHV poses a global threat to the already endangered elephant population. Since EEHV is a non-cultivable virus, there is a scarcity of specific diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines. In this study, our objective was to develop biologicals for diagnosis and pathological studies against the most prevalent EEHV1A/1B. We expressed two truncated fragments of the DNA polymerase, glycoprotein B (gB), and glycoprotein (gL) of EEHV in the prokaryotic system. Hyperimmune serum against the purified antigens was raised in rabbits and guinea pigs. We validated the reactivity of this hyperimmune serum using western blotting, ELISA, and immune-histochemistry on known positive infected tissues. Samples collected from 270 animals across various states in India were evaluated with these biologicals. The raised antibodies successfully demonstrated virus in immune-cytochemistry. Additionally, all known positive samples consistently exhibited significant inhibition in the OD values when used in the competitive format of ELISA across all four antigens when compared to the serum collected from known negative animals. An apparent sero-prevalence of 10 % was observed in the randomly collected samples. In summary, our study successfully developed and validated biologicals that will be invaluable for EEHV diagnosis and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirtika Sharma
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation Management and Disease Surveillance, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India.
| | - Karikalan Mathesh
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation Management and Disease Surveillance, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
| | - Pracheta Janmeda
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Tonk, Rajasthan 304022, India
| | - Sushmita Nautiyal
- CADRAD, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
| | - P Sree Lakshmi
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation Management and Disease Surveillance, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
| | - Athira Subash
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation Management and Disease Surveillance, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
| | - Sonalika Mahajan
- Biological Standardization Division, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
| | - Ravikant Agrawal
- Biological Products Division, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
| | - Abhijit M Pawde
- Centre for Wildlife Conservation Management and Disease Surveillance, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
| | - Gaurav Kumar Sharma
- CADRAD, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh 243122, India
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Boonprasert K, Srivorakul S, Monchaivanakit N, Langkaphin W, Sripiboon S, Janyamethakul T, Srisa-ad C, Guntawang T, Brown JL, Thitaram C, Pringproa K. Characterizations of Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Type 1A and 4 Co-Infections in Asian Elephant ( Elephas maximus) Calves. Vet Sci 2024; 11:147. [PMID: 38668415 PMCID: PMC11055005 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11040147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Three cases of double infection with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) types 1A and 4 in captive Asian elephants are presented. The first calf was a 4-year-old female that showed initial signs of lethargy and depression. The second calf was a 6-year-old female that displayed signs of depression and diarrhea and died within 48 h of the start of supportive treatment. The third was a 2-year-old male that died suddenly while living with the herd. Necropsies were performed in the first and second elephants, while only a tongue sample was collected from the third calf. EEHV infection was confirmed via quantitative PCR (qPCR) and gene sequencing, revealing double subtypes of EEHV1A and -4 infections. This study describes the hematological and pathological characteristics within the host following double EEHV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khajohnpat Boonprasert
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute, Forest Industry Organization, Lampang 52190, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Saralee Srivorakul
- Center of Veterinary Diagnostic and Technology Transfer, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Natcha Monchaivanakit
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute, Forest Industry Organization, Lampang 52190, Thailand
| | - Warangkhana Langkaphin
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute, Forest Industry Organization, Lampang 52190, Thailand
| | - Supaphen Sripiboon
- Department of Large Animal and Wildlife Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakornpathom 73140, Thailand
| | | | | | - Thunyamas Guntawang
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Rd., Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife and Companion Animal Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife and Companion Animal Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
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Heniff AC, Lynch AM, Ruterbories LK, Minter LJ, Georoff TA, Balko JA. INVESTIGATION OF A POINT-OF-CARE VISCOELASTIC COAGULATION MONITOR AND ITS COMPARISON TO THROMBOELASTOGRAPHY IN CLINICALLY HEALTHY AFRICAN ELEPHANTS ( LOXODONTA AFRICANA). J Zoo Wildl Med 2024; 55:164-172. [PMID: 38453499 DOI: 10.1638/2022-0158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) can induce fatal hemorrhagic disease (HD) in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Once clinical signs develop, progression is rapid, even with aggressive treatment. There is a critical need to develop point-of-care diagnostic tests to aid in identification of EEHV-HD prior to the onset of overt clinical signs. Study objectives were to investigate a novel, point-of-care viscoelastic coagulation monitor (VCM Vet), compare the results to thromboelastography (TEG), and report traditional hemostatic analytes in adult African elephants. Whole blood was collected from seven clinically healthy elephants (four females and three males, 18-47 yr) and analyzed in duplicate via VCM Vet and kaolin-activated TEG 1-3 and 30 min following collection, respectively. Separated plasma was frozen for ancillary coagulation testing. Both analyses generated quantifiable clotting reactions with variables (median [range]) describing clot formation rate (VCM Vet, clot time = 682 s [530-987 s], clot formation time = 244 s [186-744 s], Alpha = 40° [14-47°]; TEG, reaction time = 6.2 min [3.7-11.8 min], kinetic time = 1.3 min [0.9-2.6 min], Alpha = 70° [57-77°]), clot strength (VCM Vet, maximum clot formation = 34 units [20-45 units]; TEG, maximum amplitude = 75 mm [69-80 mm], shear elastic modulus strength = 14.7 Kdynes/s [11.3-19.5 Kdynes/s]), and clot lysis (VCM Vet, lysis index at 30 min = 100% [100-99%], lysis index at 45 min = 98% [95-100%]; TEG, lysis index at 30 min = 0% [0-0.4%], lysis index at 60 min = 1.4% [0-2.6%]) recorded. Additional testing (median [range]) included D-dimer concentration (33 ng/ml [28-94 ng/ml]), prothrombin time (12.4 s [12.2-13.2 s]), activated partial thromboplastin time (17.2 s [14.2-18.8 s]), and fibrinogen concentration (297 [282-383] mg/dL). Tracings generated by VCM Vet and TEG were clinically similar, and there was visual agreement and minimal difference between quantitative variables for duplicate tests. VCM Vet is a promising, user-friendly tool for use in identification and management of coagulopathies in African elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashlyn C Heniff
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Departments of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Alex M Lynch
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Departments of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Laura K Ruterbories
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Departments of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Larry J Minter
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Departments of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
- North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, NC 27205, USA
| | - Timothy A Georoff
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Departments of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
- North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, NC 27205, USA
| | - Julie A Balko
- Molecular Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA,
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Hidalgo-Hermoso E, Cabello J, Lopez R, Vergara-Wilson V, Vera F, Valencia C, Sanchez C, Celis S, Silva A, Cariñanos A, Barria I, Vicencio R, Muñoz-Leal S, Aravena P, Lagos R, Toro-Letelier J, Verasay-Caviedes S, Garnham A, Peña I, Sánchez F, Moreira-Arce D, Vergara PM, Alegria-Moran R, Cortés-Hinojosa G. Molecular and phylogenetic analysis of herpesviruses in endangered free-ranging cervids of Chile: ovine gammaherpesvirus-2-A novel threat to wild and domestic animal health in Chilean Patagonia. Front Vet Sci 2024; 10:1321172. [PMID: 38362467 PMCID: PMC10867328 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1321172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Herpesvirus infections have been highlighted as emerging diseases affecting wildlife health and the conservation of several taxa. Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) and infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) are two viruses that infect wild ruminants. Nevertheless, epidemiological data on herpesviruses in South American wild ruminants are limited. An outbreak of caprine gammaherpesvirus-2 (CpHV-2) that recently was suspected as the cause of MCF in southern pudus (Pudu puda) prompted the need to conduct molecular screenings in Chilean cervids to understand the epidemiology of herpesviruses. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and genetic diversity of herpesviruses in free-ranging cervids from Chile. Methods Herpesvirus infection was assessed in antemortem blood samples (n = 86) from pudus (n = 81) and huemuls (Hippocamelus bisulcus) (n = 5), as well as postmortem samples of spleen (n = 24) and lung (n = 3) from pudus, using a nested pan-herpesvirus PCR assay. Results Combining all suitable sample types, DNA of pudu gammaherpesvirus-1 was detected in five pudues and five huemuls, with an overall prevalence of 9.90% (n = 10/101; 95% CI = 5.11-17.87%). One pudu tested positive for ovine gammaherpesvirus-2 (n = 1/96; 1.04%; 95% CI = 0.05-6.49%), and one pudu tested positive for a Macavirus sequence with 98.63 similarity to ovine gammaherpesvirus-2 (n = 96; 1.04%; 95% CI = 0.05-6.49%). Discussion To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a herpesvirus in huemul and of ovine gammaherpesvirus-2 in Chile. Our results also confirm the active circulation of herpesvirus in free-ranging cervids in Chilean Patagonia, and as such, MCF should be considered as a possible cause of disease in free-ranging Chilean pudus and livestock species. Further research is necessary to develop a plan of systematic monitoring (serological and pathological screening) of herpesviruses in Chilean wild and domestic ruminants to understand their diversity and impact on animal health and conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Javier Cabello
- Centro de Conservación de la Biodiversidad Chiloé-Silvestre, Ancud, Chile
| | | | | | - Frank Vera
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Facultad de Ciencias de la Naturaleza, Universidad San Sebastian, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Carola Valencia
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Facultad de Ciencias de la Naturaleza, Universidad San Sebastian, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Carlos Sanchez
- Veterinary Medical Center, Oregon Zoo, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Sebastian Celis
- Departamento de Veterinaria, Parque Zoológico Buin Zoo, Buin, Chile
| | - Alejandra Silva
- Departamento de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Corporacion Nacional Forestal, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Aintzane Cariñanos
- Departamento de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Corporacion Nacional Forestal, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Ismael Barria
- Departamento de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Corporacion Nacional Forestal, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Rocio Vicencio
- Centro de Conservación de la Biodiversidad Chiloé-Silvestre, Ancud, Chile
| | - Sebastián Muñoz-Leal
- Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile
| | - Paula Aravena
- Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Concepción, Chillán, Chile
| | - Rocio Lagos
- Laboratorio Clínico, Hospital Veterinario SOS Buin Zoo, Buin, Chile
| | - Juan Toro-Letelier
- Facultad de Cs Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Univeridad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Antonio Garnham
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Irene Peña
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fernando Sánchez
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Dario Moreira-Arce
- Departamento de Gestión Agraria, Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
- Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), Santiago, Chile
| | - Pablo M. Vergara
- Departamento de Gestión Agraria, Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
| | - Raul Alegria-Moran
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Sede Santiago, Facultad de Recursos Naturales y Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile
| | - Galaxia Cortés-Hinojosa
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Kosaruk W, Brown JL, Towiboon P, Pringproa K, Punyapornwithaya V, Tankaew P, Kittisirikul N, Toonrongchang W, Janyamathakul T, Muanghong P, Thitaram C. Seasonal patterns of oxidative stress markers in captive Asian elephants in Thailand and relationships to elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus shedding. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1263775. [PMID: 37795017 PMCID: PMC10546319 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1263775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Oxidative stress refers to an imbalance between oxidant and antioxidant activity and accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which can have detrimental effects on animal health. Annual fluctuations in oxidative stress status can occur, increasing disease susceptibility during certain time periods. However, a full understanding of factors related to oxidative stress in Asian elephants and how to mitigate the negative consequences is lacking. Methods This study measured six serum oxidative stress markers [reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), albumin, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase] and two stress markers [serum cortisol and fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM)] in 23 captive Asian elephants in Thailand over a 12 months period to examine relationships with age and season. Results Seasonal variations were observed, with several markers exhibiting significantly higher concentrations in the summer (ROS, MDA, 8-OHdG, albumin) and lower values during the rainy/winter seasons (MDA, 8-OHdG, albumin, catalase). By contrast, GPx was the only marker to be highest during the rainy season. For the stress markers, higher fGCM concentrations were noted during the rainy season, which contrasts with earlier studies showing more activity in the winter (tourist season). Positive correlations were found between the temperature-humidity index and ROS, GPx, and fGCM, while a negative correlation was observed with serum albumin. Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) shedding events were associated with higher concentrations of ROS and MDA. A moderate negative correlation was observed between 8-OHdG and the PCR threshold cycle of EEHV shedding (Ct), indicating DNA damage may be involved in EEHV shedding in elephants. Discussion Results revealed significant age and seasonal effects on several oxidative stress markers, indicating those factors should be considered in study design and data interpretation. There also may be physiological adaptations in oxidative stress conditions in relation to environmental changes that could impact health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Worapong Kosaruk
- Doctoral Degree Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pallop Tankaew
- Central Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Narueporn Kittisirikul
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute, Forest Industry Organization, Lampang, Thailand
| | | | | | | | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Kosaruk W, Brown JL, Towiboon P, Punyapornwithaya V, Pringproa K, Thitaram C. Measures of Oxidative Status Markers in Relation to Age, Sex, and Season in Sick and Healthy Captive Asian Elephants in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13091548. [PMID: 37174585 PMCID: PMC10177462 DOI: 10.3390/ani13091548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is a pathological condition that can have adverse effects on animal health, although little research has been conducted on wildlife species. In this study, blood was collected from captive Asian elephants for the assessment of five serum oxidative status markers (reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentrations; malondialdehyde, MDA; albumin; glutathione peroxidase, GPx; and catalase) in healthy (n = 137) and sick (n = 20) animals. Health problems consisted of weakness, puncture wounds, gastrointestinal distress, eye and musculoskeletal problems, and elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD). Fecal samples were also collected to assess glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) as a measure of stress. All data were analyzed in relation to age, sex, sampling season, and their interactions using generalized linear models, and a correlation matrix was constructed. ROS and serum albumin concentrations exhibited the highest concentrations in aged elephants (>45 years). No sex differences were found for any biomarker. Interactions were observed for age groups and seasons for ROS and catalase, while GPx displayed a significant interaction between sex and season. In pairwise comparisons, significant increases in ROS and catalase were observed in summer, with higher ROS concentrations observed only in the adult female group. Lower catalase activity was exhibited in juvenile males, subadult males, adult females, and aged females compared to subadult and adult elephants (males and females) in winter and the rainy season. There was a positive association between catalase activity and fGCMs (r = 0.23, p < 0.05), and a number of red blood cell parameters were positively associated with several of these biomarkers, suggesting high oxidative and antioxidative activity covary in red cells (p < 0.05). According to health status, elephants with EEHV-HD showed the most significant changes in oxidative stress markers, with MDA, GPx, and catalase being higher and albumin being lower than in healthy elephants. This study provides an analysis of understudied health biomarkers in Asian elephants, which can be used as additional tools for assessing the health condition of this species and suggests age and season may be important factors in data interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Worapong Kosaruk
- Doctoral Degree Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
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7
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Sittisak T, Guntawang T, Srivorakul S, Photichai K, Boonprasert K, Khammesri S, Chuammitri P, Thitaram C, Hsu WL, Thanawongnuwech R, Pringproa K. Response of elephant peripheral blood mononuclear cells when stimulated with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus glycoprotein B (EEHV-gB). Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2023; 258:110577. [PMID: 36867998 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2023.110577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus-hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) is the most highly fatal infectious disease among young Asian elephants. Despite the fact that antiviral therapy has been widely used, its therapeutic outcomes remain uncertain. Additionally, the virus has yet to be successfully cultivated in vitro in the process of develop viral envelope glycoproteins for vaccine design. The present study aims to investigate and evaluate EEHV1A glycoprotein B (gB) antigenic epitopes as potential candidates for further vaccine development. Epitopes of EEHV1A-gB were employed in in silico predictions and designed by using online antigenic predicting tools. Candidate genes were then constructed, transformed and expressed in the E. coli vectors prior to examine their potential for acceleration elephant immune responses in vitro. Elephant peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from 16 healthy juvenile Asian elephants were investigated for their proliferative capability and cytokine responses after being stimulated with EEHV1A-gB epitopes. Exposure of elephant PBMCs to 20 µg/mL of gB for 72 h resulted in a significant proliferation of CD3 + cells when compared with the control group. Furthermore, proliferation of CD3 + cells was associated with a marked up-regulation of cytokine mRNA expression, involving IL-1β, IL-8, IL-12 and IFN-γ. It remains to be determined whether these candidate EEHV1A-gB epitopes could activate immune responses in animal models or elephants in vivo. Our potentially promising results demonstrate a degree of feasibility for the use of these gB epitopes in expanding EEHV vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tidaratt Sittisak
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Thunyamas Guntawang
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Saralee Srivorakul
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Kornravee Photichai
- Veterinary Diagnostic Center, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Khajohnpat Boonprasert
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Siripat Khammesri
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Phongsakorn Chuammitri
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; Department of Companion Animals and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Wei-Li Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Microbiology and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Roongroje Thanawongnuwech
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; Center of Excellence in Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand.
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Sree Lakshmi P, Karikalan M, Sharma GK, Sharma K, Chandra Mohan S, Rajesh Kumar K, Miachieo K, Kumar A, Gupta MK, Verma RK, Sahoo N, Saikumar G, Pawde AM. Pathological and molecular studies on elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus haemorrhagic disease among captive and free-range Asian elephants in India. Microb Pathog 2023; 175:105972. [PMID: 36621697 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2023.105972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In the present research pathology and molecular diagnosis of elephant endotheliotropic herpes virus-haemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) among Asian elephants was studied. Out of 76 cases, 20 were positive for EEHV infection in PANPOL and POL1 based semi-nested PCR. Out of 20 samples, 10 samples were fatal cases of EEHV-HD while 10 were of either subclinical or latent infection. Acute onset haemorrhagic disease with EEHV-HD had anorexia, facial and neck swelling, cyanotic buccal mucosa and tongue, nasal and ocular discharge, and colic. The hallmark of gross finding in all cases were severe haemorrhagic lesions in the internal organs viz. cyanosis of tongue with multifocal petechial haemorrhages, diffuse epicardial and endocardial haemorrhages, swollen liver (rounded edges) with parenchymal haemorrhages, serosal and mucosal haemorrhages in gastrointestinal tract, congested kidneys with corticomedullary haemorrhages, highly congested meninges, and brain capillaries with haemorrhages. Microscopic findings in all the cases had severe vascular changes in the visceral organs. Microthrombi was present in the vasculature of tongue, heart, lung, liver, kidney, and brain. The endothelial lining of most of the blood vessels were swollen with apoptotic changes. Amphophilic to basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies were observed in the endothelial cells. Immunostaining using anti-EEHV DNAPOL hyperimmune sera revealed intense positive signals in the endothelium of blood vessels and their walls. Quantification of viral load in necropsy tissue samples revealed highest in the heart (7.4 × 106/μg of sample) and least in the brain (9 × 103/μg of sample). The PCR amplicons from EEHV1 specific genes (POL1(U38) and TER were subjected to partial genome sequencing which had 99.9% similarity with the EEHV1A subtype. It was concluded that Asian elephants in India are latently infected for EEHV1 and in all the fatal EEHV-HD cases, EEHV1A subtype was the causative agent with characteristic pathomorphological changes in visceral organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Sree Lakshmi
- ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - M Karikalan
- ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India.
| | - Gaurav K Sharma
- ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Kirtika Sharma
- ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - S Chandra Mohan
- ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - K Rajesh Kumar
- Veterinary Officer, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, The Nigiris, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kenei Miachieo
- Sarguja Elephant Reserve, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Ajay Kumar
- Bhagwan Birsa Biological Park, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
| | - M K Gupta
- Faculty of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
| | - Rakesh K Verma
- Sarguja Elephant Reserve, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Niranjana Sahoo
- Faculty of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry, OUAT, Odisha, India
| | - G Saikumar
- ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - A M Pawde
- ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Okada Y, Suzuki H, Kaneko MK, Kato Y. Epitope Mapping of an Anti-elephant Podoplanin Monoclonal Antibody (PMab-295) Using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2022; 41:221-227. [PMID: 35917553 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2022.0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Podoplanin (PDPN) is a marker of lung type I alveolar cells, kidney podocytes, and lymphatic endothelial cells. The overexpression of PDPN contributes to the malignant progression of tumors. Therefore, the development of anti-PDPN monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to animals is essential to evaluate the pathogenesis and cellular functions. Using peptide immunization, we previously developed an anti-elephant PDPN (elePDPN) mAb, PMab-295, which is useful for flow cytometry, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry. In this study, we determined the critical epitope of PMab-295 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We performed ELISA with the alanine-substituted peptides of elePDPN extracellular domain (amino acids 38-51), and found that PMab-295 did not recognize the alanine-substituted peptides of M41A, P44A, and E47A. Furthermore, these peptides could not inhibit the recognition of PMab-295 to elePDPN-expressing cells by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. The results indicate that the binding epitope of PMab-295 includes Met41, Pro44, and Glu47 of elePDPN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Okada
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan.,Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
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10
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Kudo Y, Suzuki H, Kaneko MK, Kato Y. Development of a Monoclonal Antibody PMab-295 Against Elephant Podoplanin. Monoclon Antib Immunodiagn Immunother 2022; 41:194-201. [PMID: 35917562 DOI: 10.1089/mab.2022.0007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Podoplanin (PDPN) is an essential marker of lung type I alveolar cells, kidney podocytes, and lymphatic endothelial cells. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that can specifically recognize PDPN in immunohistochemistry are important to analyze the development of tissues and the pathogenesis of diseases, including cancers. We have developed anti-PDPN mAbs against many animal species; however, mAbs that can recognize elephant-derived membrane proteins and distinguish the specific cell types in immunohistochemistry are limited. In this study, a novel anti-elephant PDPN (elePDPN) mAb, PMab-295 (IgG1, kappa), was established using the peptide immunization method. PMab-295 recognized both elePDPN-overexpressed Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-K1 cells and endogenous elePDPN-expressed LACF-NaNaI cells by flow cytometry and western blotting. Kinetic analyses using flow cytometry showed that the KD of PMab-295 for CHO/elePDPN was 1.5 × 10-8 M. Furthermore, PMab-295 detected elePDPN-expressing cells using immunohistochemistry. These results showed the usefulness of PMab-295 to investigate the molecular function of elePDPN and the pathogenesis of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma Kudo
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Mika K Kaneko
- Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yukinari Kato
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan.,Department of Antibody Drug Development, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
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11
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Patterns of serum immune biomarkers during elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus viremia in Asian and African elephants. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0252175. [PMID: 34793450 PMCID: PMC8601435 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0252175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemorrhagic disease (HD) caused by a group of elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) is one of the leading causes of death for young elephants in human care. These viruses are widespread and typically persist latently in adult elephants with no negative effects; however, in juvenile Asian and more recently young African elephants, the onset of disease can be rapid and the mortality rate high. Measuring biomarkers associated with the immune response could be beneficial to understanding underlying disease processes, as well as the management of infection and HD. The goal of this study was to measure acute phase proteins and cytokines in serum collected from elephants infected with EEHV (13 Asian and 1 African) and compare concentrations according to presence, severity and outcome of disease. Serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (HP) were higher in elephants with EEHV viremia than those without; concentrations increased with increasing viral load, and were higher in fatal cases compared to those that survived. In Asian elephants, SAA was also higher during EEHV1 viremia compared to EEHV5. Cytokine concentrations were typically low, and no statistical differences existed between groups. However, in individuals with detectable levels, longitudinal profiles indicated changes in tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-2 (IL-2) that may reflect an immune response to EEHV infection. However, the overall low concentrations detected using previously validated assays do not support the presence of a 'cytokine storm' and suggest more work is needed to understand if sub-optimal immune responses could be involved in disease progression. These results highlight the potential benefit of measuring circulating biomarker concentrations, such as APPs and cytokines, to improve our understanding of EEHV viremia and HD, assist with monitoring the progression of disease and determining the impact of interventions.
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12
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Jesus SA, Doherr MG, Hildebrandt TB. Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Impact in the European Asian Elephant ( Elephas maximus) Population: Are Hereditability and Zoo-Associated Factors Linked with Mortality? Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11102816. [PMID: 34679837 PMCID: PMC8532781 DOI: 10.3390/ani11102816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
EEHV is a ubiquitous virus, which most likely has co-evolved with elephants and is shed by healthy individuals and maintained in the herds. Yet, the factors determining calf susceptibility to the virus remain unknown. Here, we explored the impact of EEHV-HD in the European captive Asian elephant population in a retrospective statistical study spanning the last 35 years. We show that EEHV-HD was implicated in more than half of all deaths recorded in calves older than one months old. Moreover, the median age across EEHV-HD fatalities was significantly lower compared to other death causes. Finally, we investigated if heredity and zoo-associated factors could be linked to a higher susceptibility of calves to this disease. We used a univariable logistic regression model to evaluate if either fathers, mothers, or zoos could, separately, be considered as risk factors to the development of the disease. Afterwards, we used a two multivariable model, combining: (1) fathers and zoos, and (2) mothers and zoos. Overall, we found that two fathers, one mother, and four zoos had three or more times higher risk of their calves becoming sick when compared to all others, pointing us to the presence of a management or environmental element, which can have paternal and maternal influence and leads to calf susceptibility or resistance to EEHV-HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sónia A. Jesus
- Department of Reproduction Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Straße 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany;
- Correspondence:
| | - Marcus G. Doherr
- Institute for Veterinary Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Freie Universität, Königsweg 67, 14163 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Thomas B. Hildebrandt
- Department of Reproduction Management, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Straße 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany;
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität, Oertzenweg 19 b, 14163 Berlin, Germany
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