Vertical stratification of insect abundance and species richness in an Amazonian tropical forest

Vertical distribution of arthropod assemblages in native and exotic forests of Terceira Island (Azores, Portugal)

Background

In the summer of 2024, a study was conducted on Terceira Island in the Azores Archipelago, Portugal, aiming to characterise the vertical diversity and spatial distribution patterns of arthropods within native and exotic forest ecosystems. This study forms part of a broader research initiative designed to investigate how alterations in habitat structure influence the complexity and stability of arthropod food webs in Azorean forest habitats. By systematically sampling arthropods across multiple vertical strata -from forest floor to canopy the study aimed to generate detailed insights into the ecological dynamics governing biodiversity patterns and species interactions. Results from this monitoring will contribute significantly to understanding the ecological impacts of forest composition and management strategies, ultimately providing information for conservation planning and habitat restoration efforts aimed at preserving arthropod diversity and ecological resilience in island ecosystems.

New information

The current dataset comprises identified terrestrial arthropods collected using SLAM (Sea, Land and Air Malaise) traps and Pitfall traps across diverse forest strata. A total of 32,797 specimens were collected from the Arachnida, Diplopoda, Chilopoda and Insecta classes. A total of 18,372 (56%) were identified at the species or subspecies level, including 12,745 adults and 5,627 juveniles for taxa, such as Araneae and Hemiptera due to the availability of reliable identification methods. The resulting dataset encompasses 150 species and 11 subspecies, distributed across 21 orders, 81 families and 148 genera.Hemiptera emerged as the most abundant identified order, with a total of 7,697 recorded specimens and Coleoptera stood as the most taxonomically diverse, encompassing 19 distinct families and 50 species and sub-species. The ten most abundant species comprise predominantly endemic and native non-endemic species, with two exotic species detected amongst them.This comprehensive dataset serves as a significant augmentation of the existing baseline knowledge concerning the diversity of Azorean arthropods, thereby facilitating the formulation of future long-term ecological comparisons. It offers valuable insights into the vertical distribution of species abundance within both native and exotic forests of the Azores.

Advancing canopy-level entomological surveillance to monitor vector-borne and zoonotic disease dynamics

Faced with the increased frequency of zoonotic spillover in recent decades, emerging vector-borne diseases from nonhuman primates pose a significant threat to global public health. Understanding transmission dynamics driven by arthropod vectors between wildlife populations is critical for surveillance, modeling, and mitigation. Elevated canopy-level sampling is a valuable approach for elucidating vector behavior and sylvatic transmission. However, this is underused in many regions because of the logistical and mechanical challenges of repurposing ground-based trapping for the forest canopy. We review methods of canopy-level entomological surveillance, present case studies, and identify opportunities to integrate new technologies. Paired with robust experimental design, canopy-level trapping can complement existing surveillance of emerging zoonotic diseases and provide critical insights into the role of vectors driving spillover risks.

Illuminating Entomological Dark Matter with DNA Barcodes in an Era of Insect Decline, Deep Learning, and Genomics

Most insects encountered in the field are initially entomological dark matter in that they cannot be identified to species while alive. This explains the enduring quest for efficient ways to identify collected specimens. Morphological tools came first but are now routinely replaced or complemented with DNA barcodes. Initially too expensive for widespread use, these barcodes have since evolved into powerful tools for specimen identification and sorting, given that the evolution of sequencing approaches has dramatically reduced the cost of barcodes, thus enabling decentralized deployment across the planet. In this article, we review how DNA barcodes have become a key tool for accelerating biodiversity discovery and analyzing insect communities through both megabarcoding and metabarcoding in an era of insect decline. We predict that DNA barcodes will be particularly important for assembling image training sets for deep learning algorithms, global biodiversity genomics, and functional analysis of insect communities.

Influence of Grassland Habitats on Acridoidea (Orthoptera) Species Diversity in Different Divisions of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps

In this study, we investigated Acridoidea species and their populations in the grasslands managed by 13 divisions of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (hereafter referred to as the Corps) during 2022-2024. We analyzed how the Corps' grassland habitats influenced Acridoidea diversity. Using the netting method, we collected 5290 Acridoidea specimens, representing eight families, 37 genera, and 83 species. The Acridoidea were most abundant in mountain meadows and temperate grasslands, with 42 and 43 species, respectively, while the species richness in temperate desert grasslands and temperate steppe desert grasslands was comparably high. The highest diversity index of Acridoidea was recorded in temperate grasslands (3.053), followed by mountain meadows (2.563). Regarding altitude, the diversity index was highest in the 1000-1500 m range (3.237), followed by 500-1000 m (2.976) and 1500-2000 m (2.867). However, above 1500 m, the diversity index began to decline. The Acridoidea species diversity was significantly positively correlated with the average temperatures of the wettest and warmest seasons, as well as with precipitation levels during the wettest and driest months. The dominant grassland Acridoidea species were primarily distributed in areas with low-to-medium-low soil erodibility. These findings indicate that grassland types, elevation, temperature, humidity, and soil erodibility significantly influence Acridoidea habitats, survival, reproduction, and feeding behaviors, ultimately shaping their composition, distribution, and abundance across different habitats.

Influence of Height on the Abundance and Richness of Green Lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) in an Anthropically Modified Habitat

Investigation of the diversity of lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) is crucial in agricultural systems, as these insects are important predators of many pest species. Recent studies have shown that height influences the abundance and richness of insects. Information on these factors is scarce for species of Chrysopidae at different heights in agricultural and forest environments. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of height on the abundance and richness of green lacewings in an anthropically modified environment. Multilure traps baited with putrescine and ammonium acetate were placed in four areas of the "Luiz de Queiroz" Campus (Piracicaba, São Paulo State, Brazil) at two heights (2 and 10 m) from April 2019 to March 2020. Species captured in traps hung at 2 and 10 m above the ground surface were studied with the faunistic analysis ANAFAU, using ecological parameters and diversity indices. The similarity between the species was measured using the Morisita-Horn coefficient. Thirteen species of Chrysopidae were captured, and more species and specimens of green lacewings were collected with the traps at 2 m than at 10 m, that is, height influenced the abundance and richness of the lacewing species. Leucochrysa (Nodita) cruentata (Schneider) was predominant in most areas studied. The highest diversity and abundance of green lacewings was observed on Areão farm in trap at 2 m height. However, Ceraeochrysa claveri (Navás) and Ce. everes (Banks) showed a more similar ecological pattern. Multilure traps baited with putrescine and ammonium acetate were effective in sampling green lacewings, mainly at 2 m height.

Eighty years later: a new Neotropical species of Megalopelma Enderlein (Mycetophilidae) from the Cerrado and its conservation units

The genus Megelopelma was erected by Enderlein in 1910 for a species from Nova Teutônia district, Seara municipality in Santa Catarina state, Brazil. Edwards, in 1940, added three Neotropical species to the genus and no more species have been described so far, nor with the recent Diptera surveys in the Neotropics, which did not sample the genus. With a distance of more than 1,000 km from the genus type-locality and more than eighty years since the last species was described, we present a new species of Megalopelma from conservation units of Brazilian Cerrado, the central area of the Neotropical region, including photos, a distribution map, and a brief discussion regarding its potential use as a biological indicator for long-term monitoring.

Vertical Stratification of Solitary Bees and Wasps in an Urban Forest from the Brazilian Amazon

Solitary bees and wasps that nest in cavities in tree trunks are important components of terrestrial ecosystems, providing pollination services, and in the case of wasps, the regulation of their prey populations. However, little is known about the vertical strata where bees and wasps build their nests. This is especially the case of urban forest remnants in the Amazon, which is relevant in the context of the global crisis in insect losses. We investigated the existence of vertical stratification in the nesting of solitary bees and wasps in an urban forest in Rio Branco, state of Acre, in the western Brazilian Amazon. We focused on whether wood temperature, ants, and termites are predictors of bee and wasp nesting. We sampled bee and wasp nests in the forest using trap-nests made with wooden blocks containing cavities with three different diameters for twelve months. Trap-nests were installed randomly at three heights in the forest. We collected 145 nests of 25 species, belonging to 11 genera and 6 families. A higher number of nests and species were collected in the upper stratum of the forest, strengthening the hypothesis that there is vertical stratification in the assemblage of solitary bees and wasps. Wood surface temperature and termite attacks on trap-nests were significantly different between strata, which may explain the vertical stratification of bee and wasp assemblages. Considering the importance of these insects for tropical forest ecosystems, the conservation of structurally complex and stratified forests is of paramount importance to maintain the diversity of this insect group.

Description of new species of Pseudogaurax Malloch (Diptera: Chloropidae) from Brazil, with notes on natural history

Pseudogaurax Malloch is a genus of Chloropidae with about 70 described species found in all biogeographic regions, but several additional undescribed species are known. In this study we describe six new species from Brazil: Pseudogaurax alvinae sp. nov., Pseudogaurax amazonica sp. nov., Pseudogaurax braoculatus sp. nov., Pseudogaurax cyclosa sp. nov., Pseudogaurax primavera sp. nov., and Pseudogaurax wheeleri sp. nov. Pseudogaurax trifidus (Duda) and Pseudogaurax unilineatus Hall are newly recorded from South America, and Pseudogaurax tridens Sabrosky is newly recorded from the Brazilian Amazon. Data on host records are provided for P. alvinae sp. nov., P. braoculatus sp. nov., P. cyclosa sp. nov., P. tridens, P. trifidus, and P. trilineatus. The puparia of P. alvinae sp. nov., P. cyclosa sp. nov., and P. longilineatus Sabrosky are described as well.

Vertical stratification and defensive traits of caterpillars against parasitoids in a lowland tropical forest in Cameroon

Insect herbivores and their parasitoids play a crucial role in terrestrial trophic interactions in tropical forests. These interactions occur across the entire vertical gradient of the forest. This study compares how caterpillar communities, and their parasitism rates, vary across vertical strata and between caterpillar defensive strategies in a semi deciduous tropical forest in Nditam, Cameroon. Within a 0.1 ha plot, all trees with a diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 5 cm were felled and systematically searched for caterpillars. We divided the entire vertical gradient of the forest into eight, five-metre strata. All caterpillars were assigned to a stratum based on their collection height, reared, identified, and classified into one of three defensive traits: aposematic, cryptic and shelter-building. Caterpillar species richness and diversity showed a midstory peak, whereas density followed the opposite pattern, decreasing in the midstory and then increasing towards the highest strata. This trend was driven by some highly dense shelter-building caterpillars in the upper canopy. Specialisation indices indicated decreasing levels of caterpillar generality with increasing height, a midstory peak in vulnerability, and increasing connectance towards the upper canopy, although the latter was likely driven by decreasing network size. Both aposematic and shelter-building caterpillars had significantly higher parasitism rates than cryptic caterpillars. Our results highlight nuanced changes in caterpillar communities across forest strata and provide evidence that defences strategies are important indicators of parasitism rates in caterpillars and that both aposematic and shelter-building caterpillars could be considered a "safe haven" for parasitoids.

Forest Age Drives the Resource Utilization Indicators of Trees in Planted and Natural Forests in China

Specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf dry matter content (LDMC) are key leaf functional traits commonly used to reflect tree resource utilization strategies and predict forest ecosystem responses to environmental changes. Previous research on tree resource utilization strategies (SLA and LDMC) primarily focused on the species level within limited spatial scales, making it crucial to quantify the spatial variability and driving factors of these strategies. Whether there are discrepancies in resource utilization strategies between trees in planted and natural forests, and the dominant factors and mechanisms influencing them, remain unclear. This study, based on field surveys and the literature from 2008 to 2020 covering 263 planted and 434 natural forests in China, using generalized additive models (GAMs) and structural equation models (SEMs), analyzes the spatial differences and dominant factors in tree resource utilization strategies between planted and natural forests. The results show that the SLA of planted forests is significantly higher than that of natural forests (p < 0.01), and LDMC is significantly lower (p < 0.0001), indicating a "faster investment-return" resource utilization strategy. As the mean annual high temperature (MAHT) and mean annual precipitation (MAP) steadily rise, trees have adapted their resource utilization strategies, transitioning from a "conservative" survival tactic to a "rapid investment-return" model. Compared to natural forests, planted forest trees exhibit stronger environmental plasticity and greater variability with forest age in their resource utilization strategies. Overall, forest age is the dominant factor influencing resource utilization strategies in both planted and natural forests, having a far greater direct impact than climatic factors (temperature, precipitation, and sunlight) and soil nutrient factors. Additionally, as forest age increases, both planted and natural forests show an increase in SLA and a decrease in LDMC, indicating a gradual shift towards more efficient resource utilization strategies.

Designing and Evaluating a Portable UV-LED Vane Trap to Expedite Arthropod Biodiversity Discovery

A novel design of a portable funnel light trap (PFLT) was presented for collecting insects in ecological studies. The trap consists of a compact plastic box equipped with a light source and power source, along with two plastic polypropylene interception vanes. The PFLT costs 18.3 USD per unit and weighs approximately 300 g. A maximum of six PFLT units can be packed in one medium-sized backpack (32 cm × 45 cm × 15 cm, 20 L), making it easier to set up multiple units in remote areas wherein biodiversity research is needed. The low cost and weight of the trap also allows for large-scale deployment. The design is customizable and can be easily manufactured to fit various research needs. To validate the PFLT's efficacy in collecting insects across different habitat types, a series of field experiments were conducted in South Korea and Laos, where 37 trials were carried out. The PFLT successfully collected 7497 insects without experiencing battery issues or damage by rain or wind. Insect compositions and abundances differed across the three sampled habitat types: forests, grasslands, and watersides. This new FLT trap is an important tool for studying and protecting insect biodiversity, particularly in areas wherein conventional light traps cannot be deployed.

Prioritizing global tall forests toward the 30 × 30 goals

The Global Deal for Nature sets an ambitious goal to protect 30% of Earth's land and ocean by 2030. The 30 × 30 initiative is a way to allocate conservation resources and extend protection to conserve vulnerable and underprotected ecosystems while reducing carbon emissions to combat climate change. However, most prioritization methods for identifying high-value conservation areas are based on thematic attributes and do not consider vertical habitat structure. Global tall forests represent a rare vertical habitat structure that harbors high species richness in various taxonomic groups and is associated with large amounts of aboveground biomass. Global tall forests should be prioritized when planning global protected areas toward reaching the 30 × 30 goals. We examined the spatial distribution of global tall forests based on the Global Canopy Height 2020 product. We defined global tall forests as areas with the average canopy height above 3 thresholds (20, 25, and 30 m). We quantified the spatial distribution and protection level of global tall forests in high-protection zones, where the 30 × 30 goals are being met or are within reach, and low-protection zones, where there is a low chance of reaching 30 × 30 goals. We quantified the protection level by computing the percentage of global tall forest area protected based on the 2017 World Database on Protected Areas. We also determined the global extent and protection level of undisturbed, mature, tall forests based on the 2020 Global Intact Forest Landscapes mask. In most cases, the percentage of protection decreased as forest height reached the top strata. In the low-protection zones, <30% of forests were protected in almost all tall forest strata. In countries such as Brazil, tall forests had a higher percentage of protection (consistently >30%) compared to forests of lower height, presenting a more effective conservation model than in countries such as the United States, where forest protection was almost uniformly <30% across height strata. Our results show an urgent need to target forest conservation in the greatest height strata, particularly in high-protection areas, where most global tall forests are found. Vegetation vertical structure can inform the decision-making process toward the 30 × 30 goals because it can be used to identify areas of high conservation value for biodiversity protection which also contribute to carbon sequestration.

Flight Height and Diversity of Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritidae) in an Anthropic Environment

Several fruit fly species are pest of fruit production in subtropical and tropical countries such as Brazil. Data about the fruit fly communities are relevant for understanding ecological aspects such as population dynamics, abundance, richness, and diversity. In these surveys, Multilure traps were hung about 2 m height accessible to collectors. Practically there are no data on the dynamics of fruit fly species in higher positions. Thus, a comparative analysis was performed to assess the influence of the Multilure traps height, 2 m and 10 m, to collect Anastrepha species in the agricultural and forest environments. The abundance of Anastrepha species was compared using GLM multivariate analysis and species diversity using Hill numbers for each tested height. The heat map graph, based on the Euclidean distance, was used to assess the interaction of species at each height. A total of 1080 females of Anastrepha were captured, with 722 and 358 specimens collected in traps hung at 10 and 2 m height, respectively. Fourteen species were collected, with most identified as A. fraterculus (Wiedemann) (lato sensu) (n = 435) and A. obliqua (Macquart) (n = 388). Species diversity of Anastrepha was greater at 2 m than at 10 m, as were the values of diversity indices corresponding to richness (q = 0), Shannon (q = 1), and Simpson (q = 2). We conclude that evaluations of aspects related to the distribution of Anastrepha species at different heights should be adopted in fruit fly population monitoring programs as a management strategy for pest species.

Brakemyia, a New Neotropical Jackal Fly Genus of Milichiidae (Insecta: Diptera) Associated with Carton Ant Nest

Brakemyia metallica gen. et sp. nov. (Diptera, Milichiidae) is described and illustrated based on male and female specimens reared from carton nests of the ant Azteca aff. chartifex Forel (Formicidae: Dolichoderinae). The new genus is widely distributed in the Brazilian Amazon, and it can be readily distinguished from the other Neotropical genera by the broadened lunule, which extends well posterior of the antennae, and the hypandrial complex parallel to epandrium.

Dual-Band Infrared Scheimpflug Lidar Reveals Insect Activity in a Tropical Cloud Forest

We describe an entomological dual-band 808 and 980 nm lidar system which has been implemented in a tropical cloud forest (Ecuador). The system was successfully tested at a sample rate of 5 kHz in a cloud forest during challenging foggy conditions (extinction coefficients up to 20 km^-1). At times, the backscattered signal could be retrieved from a distance of 2.929 km. We present insect and bat observations up to 200 m during a single night with an emphasis on fog aspects, potentials, and benefits of such dual-band systems. We demonstrate that the modulation contrast between insects and fog is high in the frequency domain compared to intensity in the time domain, thus allowing for better identification and quantification in misty forests. Oscillatory lidar extinction effects are shown in this work for the first time, caused by the combination of dense fog and large moths partially obstructing the beam. We demonstrate here an interesting case of a moth where left- and right-wing movements induced oscillations in both intensity and pixel spread. In addition, we were able to identify the dorsal and ventral sides of the wings by estimating the corresponding melanization with the dual-band lidar. We demonstrate that the wing beat trajectories in the dual-band parameter space are complementary rather than covarying or redundant, thus a dual-band entomological lidar approach to biodiversity studies is feasible in situ and endows species specificity differentiation. Future improvements are discussed. The introduction of these methodologies opens the door to a wealth of possible experiments to monitor, understand, and safeguard the biological resources of one of the most biodiverse countries on Earth.

Biodiversity of Coleoptera (Insecta) in Mordovia State Nature Reserve (Russia) using fermental traps

Background

Protected areas are unique ecosystems that are minimally affected by anthropogenic activities. Therefore, in many cases, they are refugia and relevance of faunistic research is undeniable here. A simple method of catching insects, such as trapping with the help of fermental traps, was used in this area for the first time. The authors of the dataset used this method from 2018 to 2021. One thousand and fifty-one traps of our own design were installed. The dataset includes data on 367 species from 52 families (6,497 records of 44,600 specimens). Ten species were dominant in the traps (Cryptarchastrigata, Protaetiamarmorata, Glischrochilusgrandis, Glischrochilushortensis, Soroniagrisea, Rhagiummordax, Lepturathoracica, Lepturaquadrifasciata, Quediusdilatatus and Protaetiafieberi). These species accounted for 76.9% of all individuals in the total amount of captured specimens. Cryptarchastrigata was the most numerous species (28.8% of the total) and the most frequently encountered species (64.9%). The greatest species diversity was recorded in the families Cerambycidae (53 species), Elateridae and Curculionidae (39 species each), Nitidulidae and Coccinellidae (22 species each). The dataset contains information on the occurrence of 15 rare species.

New information

We have recently published a checklist of the Coleoptera of Mordovia State Nature Reserve (Egorov et al. 2020). It included 2,145 species from 88 families. However, the published list did not contain information about the occurrence of various species of beetles, especially caught in recent years. Part of this list contained information about species collected using fermental traps. However, the list of species did not provide information about specific locations.

Local Climate Conditions Shape the Seasonal Patterns of the Diptera Community in a Tropical Rainforest of the Americas

Insect life cycles are short-term and therefore sensitive to immediate changes triggered by climate, vegetation structure, or land use management; hence, the insect populations shape the communities and functional relationships in tropical forests. In this study, we hypothesized that seasonal variations of the dipteran families respond in different ways to changes of weather conditions, thereby affecting their population dynamics. In a one-hectare plot, we surveyed the fly community inhabiting the understory of a Neotropical rainforest. Over a yearly cycle, we used three Malaise traps operated continuously for 365 days and recorded a total of 68,465 fly specimens belonging to 48 families of Diptera, 15 of which were most abundant, accounting for 99.2% of all sampled individuals. The results of the trapping frequency indices (TFIs) exhibited significant population fluctuations in 12 of the 15 most abundant families, which were particularly correlated with temperature or precipitation. Based on such variations, we identified four seasonal patterns as follows: (i) Spring-Autumn bimodal pattern (Cecidomyiidae, Sciaridae, Phoridae, Stratiomyidae); (ii) Spring pattern (Mycetophilidae, Dolichopodidae, Ceratopogonidae); (iii) Autumn pattern (Chironomidae, Psychodidae); (iv) Winter pattern (Empididae, Tipulidae, Ditomyiidae). From a functional perspective, we found the prevalence of families with saprophagous larvae, in addition to phytophagous, fungivores, and predacious. Our results suggest a key role played by the Diptera community on structuring the functional clusters, both in terms of taxonomic composition and on seasonal shifts of abundance, thus influencing the dynamic processes of nutrient cycling in the understory.

Gene-rich X chromosomes implicate intragenomic conflict in the evolution of bizarre genetic systems

Haplodiploidy and paternal genome elimination (HD/PGE) are common in invertebrates, having evolved at least two dozen times, all from male heterogamety (i.e., systems with X chromosomes). However, why X chromosomes are important for the evolution of HD/PGE remains debated. The Haploid Viability Hypothesis posits that X-linked genes promote the evolution of male haploidy by facilitating purging recessive deleterious mutations. The Intragenomic Conflict Hypothesis holds that conflict between genes drives genetic system turnover; under this model, X-linked genes could promote the evolution of male haploidy due to conflicts with autosomes over sex ratios and genetic transmission. We studied lineages where we can distinguish these hypotheses: species with germline PGE that retain an XX/X0 sex determination system (gPGE+X). Because evolving PGE in these cases involves changes in transmission without increases in male hemizygosity, a high degree of X linkage in these systems is predicted by the Intragenomic Conflict Hypothesis but not the Haploid Viability Hypothesis. To quantify the degree of X linkage, we sequenced and compared 7 gPGE+X species’ genomes with 11 related species with typical XX/XY or XX/X0 genetic systems, representing three transitions to gPGE. We find highly increased X linkage in both modern and ancestral genomes of gPGE+X species compared to non-gPGE relatives and recover a significant positive correlation between percent X linkage and the evolution of gPGE. These empirical results substantiate longstanding proposals for a role for intragenomic conflict in the evolution of genetic systems such as HD/PGE.

The contribution of the BIOTA/FAPESP Program to the advancement of the knowledge on terrestrial invertebrates

Abstract The variability of the organisms living in a given area constitute what is referred to as biodiversity, one of nature’s fundamental properties, responsible for the balance and stability of ecosystems. The loss of biodiversity has been of great concern to scientists, especially because of the role played by human activities in this regard, able to lead to irreversible circumstances. The São Paulo Research Foundation (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo, FAPESP) plays a major role in supporting research efforts in the most diverse branches of science. In the late 1990´s, FAPESP launched a major program to promote research on biodiversity, named BIOTA/FAPESP. So far, this program has financed the conduction of 26 projects, involving research activities in most of Brazil, while focusing mainly the State of São Paulo. These projects have generated about 1140 publications in peer-reviewed journals of high standard, providing relevant information, including the original description of 1187 species and 76 genera, the complementary description of 350 species, as well as a number of inventory works, biological studies, etc. The program has also been instrumental in the establishment or adequacy of research facilities and training of new taxonomists. Most extensively studied groups of terrestrial invertebrates include Insecta of the orders Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera, and Arachnida of the subclasses Araneae and Acari. Distinct projects have also contributed to the detection of organisms potentially useful as biological control agents and in the determination of maps of major interest for the establishment of public policies. In the future, priority groups for study should include the Annelida and the Nematoda, for the potential both have as beneficial organisms, or for the potential some Nematoda have as organisms harmful to plants and animals.