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Yu X, Li J, Zhu H, Tian X, Lau E. Electrophysiological hallmarks for event relations and event roles in working memory. Front Neurosci 2024; 17:1282869. [PMID: 38328555 PMCID: PMC10847304 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1282869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The ability to maintain events (i.e., interactions between/among objects) in working memory is crucial for our everyday cognition, yet the format of this representation is poorly understood. The current ERP study was designed to answer two questions: How is maintaining events (e.g., the tiger hit the lion) neurally different from maintaining item coordinations (e.g., the tiger and the lion)? That is, how is the event relation (present in events but not coordinations) represented? And how is the agent, or initiator of the event encoded differently from the patient, or receiver of the event during maintenance? We used a novel picture-sentence match-across-delay approach in which the working memory representation was "pinged" during the delay, replicated across two ERP experiments with Chinese and English materials. We found that maintenance of events elicited a long-lasting late sustained difference in posterior-occipital electrodes relative to non-events. This effect resembled the negative slow wave reported in previous studies of working memory, suggesting that the maintenance of events in working memory may impose a higher cost compared to coordinations. Although we did not observe significant ERP differences associated with pinging the agent vs. the patient during the delay, we did find that the ping appeared to dampen the ongoing sustained difference, suggesting a shift from sustained activity to activity silent mechanisms. These results suggest a new method by which ERPs can be used to elucidate the format of neural representation for events in working memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinchi Yu
- Program of Neuroscience and Cognitive Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
- Department of Linguistics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Jialu Li
- Division of Arts and Sciences, New York University Shanghai, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (Ministry of Education), School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science at NYU Shanghai, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Zhu
- Division of Arts and Sciences, New York University Shanghai, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (Ministry of Education), School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science at NYU Shanghai, Shanghai, China
| | - Xing Tian
- Division of Arts and Sciences, New York University Shanghai, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (Ministry of Education), School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science at NYU Shanghai, Shanghai, China
| | - Ellen Lau
- Program of Neuroscience and Cognitive Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
- Department of Linguistics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
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2
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Wang SY, Gong XM, Zhan LZ, You FH, Sun Q. Attention influences the effects of the previous form orientation on the current motion direction estimation. Sci Rep 2024; 14:1394. [PMID: 38228771 PMCID: PMC10791700 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-52069-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have found that the estimates of motion directions are biased toward the previous form orientations, showing serial dependence, and the serial dependence does not involve cognitive abilities. In the current study, we conducted two experiments to investigate whether and how attention-a cognitive ability-affected the serial dependence. The results showed that serial dependence was present in the current study, reproducing the previous findings. Importantly, when the attentional load reduced the reliability (i.e., estimation accuracy and precision) of previous form orientations (Experiment 1), the serial dependence decreased, meaning that the biases of motion direction estimates toward previous form orientations were reduced; in contrast, when the attentional load reduced the reliability of current motion directions (Experiment 2), the serial dependence increased, meaning that the biases of motion direction estimates toward previous form orientations were increased. These trends were well consistent with the prediction of the Bayesian inference theory. Therefore, the current study revealed the involvement of attention in the serial dependence of current motion direction estimation on the previous form orientation, demonstrating that the serial dependence was cognitive and the attentional effect can be a Bayesian inference process, initially revealing its computational mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Yu Wang
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiu-Mei Gong
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin-Zhe Zhan
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, People's Republic of China
| | - Fan-Huan You
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Sun
- School of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, People's Republic of China.
- Intelligent Laboratory of Zhejiang Province in Mental Health and Crisis Intervention for Children and Adolescents, Jinhua, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Intelligent Education Technology and Application of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, People's Republic of China.
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3
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Ideriha T, Ushiyama J. Behavioral fluctuation reflecting theta-rhythmic activation of sequential working memory. Sci Rep 2024; 14:550. [PMID: 38177622 PMCID: PMC10767028 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-51128-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Sequential working memory, the ability to actively maintain sequential information, is essential for human cognition. The neural representation of each item in sequential working memory is thought to be activated rhythmically within the theta (3-7 Hz) range of human electrophysiology. In the current study, we predicted that if neural representations of sequential working memory items were truly activated rhythmically, periodic fluctuations in behavior would be evident. That is, the ease and speed of recalling each memory item would oscillate depending on the interval between memory encoding and recall, affected by the rhythmic neural representation. We conducted detailed analyses of reaction times for retrieving sequential and non-sequential information in eight experiments (total n = 125). The results revealed that reaction times for recalling sequential information showed fluctuation in the theta range as a function of the interval between memory encoding and recall, which was significantly stronger than that observed when the task did not require participants to remember the sequential order. Taken together, the current findings revealed that participants' behavior exhibited theta-rhythmic fluctuation when recalling sequential information in a relatively large sample, supporting theta phase-dependent coding of sequential working memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Ideriha
- Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan.
| | - Junichi Ushiyama
- Faculty of Environment and Information Studies, Keio University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan.
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
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de Vries E, van Ede F. Microsaccades Track Location-Based Object Rehearsal in Visual Working Memory. eNeuro 2024; 11:ENEURO.0276-23.2023. [PMID: 38176905 PMCID: PMC10849020 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0276-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Besides controlling eye movements, the brain's oculomotor system has been implicated in the control of covert spatial attention and the rehearsal of spatial information in working memory. We investigated whether the oculomotor system also contributes to rehearsing visual objects in working memory when object location is never asked about. To address this, we tracked the incidental use of locations for mnemonic rehearsal via directional biases in microsaccades while participants maintained two visual objects (colored oriented gratings) in working memory. By varying the stimulus configuration (horizontal, diagonal, and vertical) at encoding, we could quantify whether microsaccades were more aligned with the configurational axis of the memory contents, as opposed to the orthogonal axis. Experiment 1 revealed that microsaccades continued to be biased along the axis of the memory content several seconds into the working memory delay. In Experiment 2, we confirmed that this directional microsaccade bias was specific to memory demands, ruling out lingering effects from passive and attentive encoding of the same visual objects in the same configurations. Thus, by studying microsaccade directions, we uncover oculomotor-driven rehearsal of visual objects in working memory through their associated locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eelke de Vries
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Freek van Ede
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behavior Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081 HV, The Netherlands
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Raposo I, Szczepanski SM, Haaland K, Endestad T, Solbakk AK, Knight RT, Helfrich RF. Periodic attention deficits after frontoparietal lesions provide causal evidence for rhythmic attentional sampling. Curr Biol 2023; 33:4893-4904.e3. [PMID: 37852264 PMCID: PMC10842514 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Contemporary models conceptualize spatial attention as a blinking spotlight that sequentially samples visual space. Hence, behavior fluctuates over time, even in states of presumed "sustained" attention. Recent evidence has suggested that rhythmic neural activity in the frontoparietal network constitutes the functional basis of rhythmic attentional sampling. However, causal evidence to support this notion remains absent. Using a lateralized spatial attention task, we addressed this issue in patients with focal lesions in the frontoparietal attention network. Our results revealed that frontoparietal lesions introduce periodic attention deficits, i.e., temporally specific behavioral deficits that are aligned with the underlying neural oscillations. Attention-guided perceptual sensitivity was on par with that of healthy controls during optimal phases but was attenuated during the less excitable sub-cycles. Theta-dependent sampling (3-8 Hz) was causally dependent on the prefrontal cortex, while high-alpha/low-beta sampling (8-14 Hz) emerged from parietal areas. Collectively, our findings reveal that lesion-induced high-amplitude, low-frequency brain activity is not epiphenomenal but has immediate behavioral consequences. More generally, these results provide causal evidence for the hypothesis that the functional architecture of attention is inherently rhythmic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Raposo
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University Medical Center Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; International Max Planck Research School for the Mechanisms of Mental Function and Dysfunction, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sara M Szczepanski
- Department of Psychology and the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Kathleen Haaland
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of New Mexico Health Sciences, Albuquerque, NM 87102, USA
| | - Tor Endestad
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0373 Oslo, Norway; RITMO Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Rhythm, Time, and Motion, University of Oslo, 0371 Oslo, Norway
| | - Anne-Kristin Solbakk
- Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0373 Oslo, Norway; RITMO Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Rhythm, Time, and Motion, University of Oslo, 0371 Oslo, Norway; Department of Neurosurgery, Oslo University Hospital, 0372 Oslo, Norway; Department of Neuropsychology, Helgeland Hospital, 8656 Mosjøen, Norway
| | - Robert T Knight
- Department of Psychology and the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Randolph F Helfrich
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University Medical Center Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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Fan X, Kolodny T, Woodard KM, Tasevac A, Ganz WR, Rea HM, Kurtz-Nelson EC, Webb SJ, Murray SO. Rhythmic attentional sampling in autism. Autism Res 2023; 16:2090-2099. [PMID: 37676241 PMCID: PMC10840939 DOI: 10.1002/aur.3021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Individuals diagnosed with autism often display alterations in visual spatial attention toward visual stimuli, but the underlying cause of these differences remains unclear. Recent evidence has demonstrated that covert spatial attention, rather than remaining constant at a cued location, samples stimuli rhythmically at a frequency of 4-8 Hz (theta). Here we tested whether rhythmic sampling of attention is altered in autism. Participants were asked to monitor three locations to detect a brief target presented 300-1200 ms after a spatial cue. Visual attention was oriented to the cue and modified visual processing at the cued location, consistent with previous studies. We measured detection performance at different cue-target intervals when the target occurred at the cued location. Significant oscillations in detection performance were identified using both a traditional time-shuffled approach and a new autoregressive surrogate method developed by Brookshire in 2022. We found that attention enhances behavioral performance rhythmically at the same frequency in both autism and control group at the cued location. However, rhythmic temporal structure was not observed in a subgroup of autistic individuals with co-occurring attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Our results imply that intrinsic brain rhythms which organize neural activity into alternating attentional states is functional in autistic individuals, but may be altered in autistic participants who have a concurrent ADHD diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxu Fan
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Tamar Kolodny
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Kristin M Woodard
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Aydin Tasevac
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Wesley R Ganz
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Hannah M Rea
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Sara Jane Webb
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Scott O Murray
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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van der Werf OJ, Schuhmann T, de Graaf T, Ten Oever S, Sack AT. Investigating the role of task relevance during rhythmic sampling of spatial locations. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12707. [PMID: 37543646 PMCID: PMC10404272 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38968-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently it has been discovered that visuospatial attention operates rhythmically, rather than being stably employed over time. A low-frequency 7-8 Hz rhythmic mechanism coordinates periodic windows to sample relevant locations and to shift towards other, less relevant locations in a visual scene. Rhythmic sampling theories would predict that when two locations are relevant 8 Hz sampling mechanisms split into two, effectively resulting in a 4 Hz sampling frequency at each location. Therefore, it is expected that rhythmic sampling is influenced by the relative importance of locations for the task at hand. To test this, we employed an orienting task with an arrow cue, where participants were asked to respond to a target presented in one visual field. The cue-to-target interval was systematically varied, allowing us to assess whether performance follows a rhythmic pattern across cue-to-target delays. We manipulated a location's task relevance by altering the validity of the cue, thereby predicting the correct location in 60%, 80% or 100% of trials. Results revealed significant 4 Hz performance fluctuations at cued right visual field targets with low cue validity (60%), suggesting regular sampling of both locations. With high cue validity (80%), we observed a peak at 8 Hz towards non-cued targets, although not significant. These results were in line with our hypothesis suggesting a goal-directed balancing of attentional sampling (cued location) and shifting (non-cued location) depending on the relevance of locations in a visual scene. However, considering the hemifield specificity of the effect together with the absence of expected effects for cued trials in the high valid conditions we further discuss the interpretation of the data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olof J van der Werf
- Section Brain Stimulation and Cognition, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, 6229 EV, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
- Maastricht Brain Imaging Centre (MBIC), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Teresa Schuhmann
- Section Brain Stimulation and Cognition, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, 6229 EV, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Maastricht Brain Imaging Centre (MBIC), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Tom de Graaf
- Section Brain Stimulation and Cognition, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, 6229 EV, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Maastricht Brain Imaging Centre (MBIC), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Sanne Ten Oever
- Section Brain Stimulation and Cognition, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, 6229 EV, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Language and Computation in Neural Systems Group, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Donders Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander T Sack
- Section Brain Stimulation and Cognition, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, 6229 EV, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Maastricht Brain Imaging Centre (MBIC), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNs), Brain and Nerve Centre, Maastricht University Medical Centre+ (MUMC+), Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Abdalaziz M, Redding ZV, Fiebelkorn IC. Rhythmic temporal coordination of neural activity prevents representational conflict during working memory. Curr Biol 2023; 33:1855-1863.e3. [PMID: 37100058 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.03.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Selective attention1 is characterized by alternating states associated with either attentional sampling or attentional shifting, helping to prevent functional conflicts by isolating function-specific neural activity in time.2,3,4,5 We hypothesized that such rhythmic temporal coordination might also help to prevent representational conflicts during working memory.6 Multiple items can be simultaneously held in working memory, and these items can be represented by overlapping neural populations.7,8,9 Traditional theories propose that the short-term storage of to-be-remembered items occurs through persistent neural activity,10,11,12 but when neurons are simultaneously representing multiple items, persistent activity creates a potential for representational conflicts. In comparison, more recent, "activity-silent" theories of working memory propose that synaptic changes also contribute to short-term storage of to-be-remembered items.13,14,15,16 Transient bursts in neural activity,17 rather than persistent activity, could serve to occasionally refresh these synaptic changes. Here, we used EEG and response times to test whether rhythmic temporal coordination helps to isolate neural activity associated with different to-be-remembered items, thereby helping to prevent representational conflicts. Consistent with this hypothesis, we report that the relative strength of different item representations alternates over time as a function of the frequency-specific phase. Although RTs were linked to theta (∼6 Hz) and beta (∼25 Hz) phases during a memory delay, the relative strength of item representations only alternated as a function of the beta phase. The present findings (1) are consistent with rhythmic temporal coordination being a general mechanism for preventing functional or representational conflicts during cognitive processes and (2) inform models describing the role of oscillatory dynamics in organizing working memory.13,18,19,20,21.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miral Abdalaziz
- Department of Neuroscience and Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Zach V Redding
- Department of Neuroscience and Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Ian C Fiebelkorn
- Department of Neuroscience and Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA.
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Li D, Hu Y, Qi M, Zhao C, Jensen O, Huang J, Song Y. Prioritizing flexible working memory representations through retrospective attentional strengthening. Neuroimage 2023; 269:119902. [PMID: 36708973 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Revised: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous work has proposed two potential benefits of retrospective attention on working memory (WM): target strengthening and non-target inhibition. It remains unknown which hypothesis contributes to the improved WM performance, yet the neural mechanisms responsible for this attentional benefit are unclear. Here, we recorded electroencephalography (EEG) signals while 33 participants performed a retrospective-cue WM task. Multivariate pattern classification analysis revealed that only representations of target features were enhanced by valid retrospective attention during retention, supporting the target strengthening hypothesis. Further univariate analysis found that mid-frontal theta inter-trial phase coherence (ITPC) and ERP components were modulated by valid retrospective attention and correlated with individual differences and moment-to-moment fluctuations on behavioral outcomes, suggesting that both trait- and state-level variability in attentional preparatory processes influence goal-directed behavior. Furthermore, task-irrelevant target spatial location could be decoded from EEG signals, indicating that enhanced spatial binding of target representation is vital to high WM precision. Importantly, frontoparietal theta-alpha phase-amplitude coupling was increased by valid retrospective attention and predicted the reduced random guessing rates. This long-range connection supported top-down information flow in the engagement of frontoparietal networks, which might organize attentional states to integrate target features. Altogether, these results provide neurophysiological bases that retrospective attention improves WM precision by enhancing flexible target representation and emphasize the critical role of the frontoparietal attentional network in the control of WM representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China; Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Yiqing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Mengdi Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Chenguang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China; Center for Cognition and Neuroergonomics, State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China
| | - Ole Jensen
- Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Jing Huang
- Center for Cognition and Neuroergonomics, State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China.
| | - Yan Song
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China; Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
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