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Iqbal S, Schneider TJK, Truong TT, Ulrich-Müller R, Nguyen PH, Ilyas S, Mathur S. Carriers for hydrophobic drug molecules: lipid-coated hollow mesoporous silica particles, and the influence of shape and size on encapsulation efficiency. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:11274-11289. [PMID: 38787696 DOI: 10.1039/d4nr01420k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Hydrophobic drugs, while designed to interact with specific receptors or enzymes located in lipid-rich cell membranes, often face challenges of limited bioavailability and insufficient circulation time due to their insolubility in aqueous environments. One plausible pathway to increase their blood circulation time is to load these drugs into biocompatible and hydrophilic carriers to enhance their uptake. In this study, mesoporous silica (mSiO2) nanocarriers of various morphologies (including cubes, capsules, and spheres) were synthesized. These nanocarriers were then surface-functionalized with alkyl chain hydrocarbons, specifically octadecyl-trimethoxysilane, (OCH3)3Si(CH2)17CH3, to render them hydrophobic. The resulting nanocarriers (((OCH3)3Si(CH2)17CH3)@mSiO2) showed up to 80% uptake for hydrophobic drugs. However, a significant drawback was observed as most of the drugs were prone to uncontrollable release within 6 h. This challenge of premature drug release was successfully mitigated by effectively sealing the drug-loaded nanocarriers with a pH-sensitive lipid overlayer. The lipid-coated nanocarriers prolonged drug containment and sustained release up to 72 h, compared to 6 h for uncoated nanocarriers, thereby facilitating longer blood circulation times. Moreover, the shape and size of nanocarriers were found to influence both drug entrapment capacity and release behavior with cubic forms exhibiting superior loading capacity due to higher surface area and porosity. Additionally, it was observed that the molecular weight and chemical structure of the drug molecules played a crucial role in determining their uptake and release profiles. Furthermore, the influence of different morphologies of nanocarriers on cell uptake and cytotoxicity in immune cells was elucidated. These findings underscore the importance of nanocarrier morphology and drug properties to enhance loading capacities and controlled release profiles, for designing drug delivery systems tailored for hydrophobic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumiya Iqbal
- Institute of Inorganic and Materials Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 6, 50939 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Tom-Jonas Klaus Schneider
- Institute of Inorganic and Materials Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 6, 50939 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Thanh Tung Truong
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Department I of Internal Medicine; Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
| | - Roman Ulrich-Müller
- Department II of Internal Medicine and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cluster of Excellence Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-associated Diseases (CECAD), Joseph-Stelzmann-Straße 26, 50931, Cologne Germany
| | - Phuong-Hien Nguyen
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Department I of Internal Medicine; Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
| | - Shaista Ilyas
- Institute of Inorganic and Materials Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 6, 50939 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Sanjay Mathur
- Institute of Inorganic and Materials Chemistry, University of Cologne, Greinstr. 6, 50939 Cologne, Germany.
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Kim T, Cho AY, Lee SW, Lee HJ. Controlled Quercetin Release by Fluorescent Mesoporous Nanocarriers for Effective Anti-Adipogenesis. Int J Nanomedicine 2024; 19:5441-5458. [PMID: 38868593 PMCID: PMC11168417 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s463765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Quercetin (QUER), a flavonoid abundant in fruits and vegetables, is emerging as a promising alternative therapeutic agent for obesity treatment due to its antioxidant and anti-adipogenic properties. However, the clinical application of QUER is limited by its poor solubility, low bioavailability, and potential toxicity at high doses. To address these challenges, this study aims to develop an advanced drug delivery system using fluorescent mesoporous silica nanoparticles (FMSNs) coated with polydopamine (PDA) for the efficient and sustained delivery of QUER to inhibit adipogenesis. Methods The research included the synthesis of PDA-coated FMSNs for encapsulation of QUER, characterization of their mesoporous structures, and systematic investigation of the release behavior of QUER. The DPPH assay was used to evaluate the sustained radical scavenging potential. Concentration-dependent effects on 3T3-L1 cell proliferation, cellular uptake and adipogenesis inhibition were investigated. Results PDA-coated FMSNs exhibited well-aligned mesoporous structures. The DPPH assay confirmed the sustained radical scavenging potential, with FMSNs-QUER@PDA showing 53.92 ± 3.48% inhibition at 72 h, which was higher than FMSNs-QUER (44.66 ± 0.57%) and free QUER (43.37 ± 5.04%). Concentration-dependent effects on 3T3-L1 cells highlighted the enhanced efficacy of PDA-coated FMSNs for cellular uptake, with a 1.5-fold increase compared to uncoated FMSNs. Adipogenesis inhibition was also improved, with relative lipid accumulation of 44.6 ± 4.6%, 37.3 ± 4.6%, and 36.5 ± 7.3% at 2.5, 5, and 10 μM QUER concentrations, respectively. Conclusion The study successfully developed a tailored drug delivery system, emphasizing sustained QUER release and enhanced therapeutic effects. FMSNs, especially when coated with PDA, exhibit promising properties for efficient QUER delivery, providing a comprehensive approach that integrates advanced drug delivery technology and therapeutic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taelin Kim
- School of Chemical, Biological and Battery Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - A Yeon Cho
- School of Chemical, Biological and Battery Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Wha Lee
- School of Chemical, Biological and Battery Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jong Lee
- School of Chemical, Biological and Battery Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
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Matadamas-Ortiz A, Pérez-Robles JF, Reynoso-Camacho R, Amaya-Llano SL, Amaro-Reyes A, Di Pierro P, Regalado-González C. Effect of Amine, Carboxyl, or Thiol Functionalization of Mesoporous Silica Particles on Their Efficiency as a Quercetin Delivery System in Simulated Gastrointestinal Conditions. Foods 2024; 13:1208. [PMID: 38672881 PMCID: PMC11048906 DOI: 10.3390/foods13081208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Quercetin (Q) dietary supplements exhibit poor oral bioavailability because of degradation throughout gastrointestinal digestion (GD), which may be overcome using mesoporous silica particles (MSPs) as an oral delivery system (ODS). This study aimed to elucidate the effect of the functionalization of MSPs with amine-(A-MSP), carboxyl-(C-MSP), or thiol-(T-MSP) groups on their efficiency as a quercetin ODS (QODS). The type and degree of functionalization (DF) were used as factors in an experimental design. The Q-loaded F-MSP (F-MSP/Q) was characterized by gas physisorption analysis, loading capacity (LC), and dynamic light scattering and kinetics of Q release at gastric and intestinal pHs. Antioxidant capacity and Q concentration of media containing F-MSP/Q were evaluated after simulated GD. A-MSP showed the highest LC (19.79 ± 2.42%). C-MSP showed the lowest particle size at pH 1.5 or 7.4 (≈200 nm). T-MSP exhibited the maximum Q release at pH 7.4 (11.43%). High DF of A-MSP increased Q retention, regardless of pH. A-MSP preserved antioxidant capacity of Q-released gastric media (58.95 ± 3.34%). Nonetheless, MSP and F-MSP did not protect antioxidant properties of Q released in intestinal conditions. C-MSP and T-MSP showed essential features for cellular uptake and Q release within cells that need to be assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Matadamas-Ortiz
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, C.U., Cerro de las Campanas s/n, Col., Las Campanas, Querétaro 76010, Qro., Mexico; (A.M.-O.); (R.R.-C.); (S.L.A.-L.); (A.A.-R.)
| | - Juan F. Pérez-Robles
- Unidad Querétaro, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del IPN, CINVESTAV, Libramiento Norponiente No. 2000, Fracc. Real de Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, Qro., Mexico;
| | - Rosalía Reynoso-Camacho
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, C.U., Cerro de las Campanas s/n, Col., Las Campanas, Querétaro 76010, Qro., Mexico; (A.M.-O.); (R.R.-C.); (S.L.A.-L.); (A.A.-R.)
| | - Silvia L. Amaya-Llano
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, C.U., Cerro de las Campanas s/n, Col., Las Campanas, Querétaro 76010, Qro., Mexico; (A.M.-O.); (R.R.-C.); (S.L.A.-L.); (A.A.-R.)
| | - Aldo Amaro-Reyes
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, C.U., Cerro de las Campanas s/n, Col., Las Campanas, Querétaro 76010, Qro., Mexico; (A.M.-O.); (R.R.-C.); (S.L.A.-L.); (A.A.-R.)
| | - Prospero Di Pierro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici, Italy;
| | - Carlos Regalado-González
- Departamento de Investigación y Posgrado en Alimentos, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, C.U., Cerro de las Campanas s/n, Col., Las Campanas, Querétaro 76010, Qro., Mexico; (A.M.-O.); (R.R.-C.); (S.L.A.-L.); (A.A.-R.)
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Chen JM, Cheng YL, Yang MH, Su C, Yu H. Enhancing the inhibition of dental erosion and abrasion with quercetin-encapsulated hollow mesoporous silica nanocomposites. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2024; 12:1343329. [PMID: 38405377 PMCID: PMC10885352 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1343329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Dental erosion and abrasion pose significant clinical challenges, often leading to exposed dentinal tubules and dentine demineralization. The aim of this study was to analyse the efficacy of quercetin-encapsulated hollow mesoporous silica nanocomposites (Q@HMSNs) on the prevention of dentine erosion and abrasion. Method: Q@HMSNs were synthesized, characterized, and evaluated for their biocompatibility. A total of 130 dentine specimens (2 mm × 2 mm × 2 mm) were prepared and randomly distributed into 5 treatment groups (n = 26): DW (deionized water, negative control), NaF (12.3 mg/mL sodium fluoride, positive control), Q (300 μg/mL quercetin), HMSN (5.0 mg/mL HMSNs), and Q@HMSN (5.0 mg/mL Q@HMSNs). All groups were submitted to in vitro erosive (4 cycles/d) and abrasive (2 cycles/d) challenges for 7 days. The specimens in the DW, NaF, and Q groups were immersed in the respective solutions for 2 min, while treatment was performed for 30 s in the HMSN and Q@HMSN groups. Subsequently, the specimens were subjected to additional daily erosion/abrasion cycles for another 7 days. The effects of the materials on dentinal tubule occlusion and demineralized organic matrix (DOM) preservation were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The penetration depth of rhodamine B fluorescein into the etched dentine was assessed using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The erosive dentine loss (EDL) and release of type I collagen telopeptide (ICTP) were measured. The data were analysed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with post hoc Tukey's test (α = 0.05). Results: Q@HMSNs were successfully synthesized and showed minimal toxicity to human dental pulp stem cells (HDPSCs) and gingival fibroblasts (HGFs). Q@HMSNs effectively occluded the dentinal tubules, resulting in a thicker DOM in the Q@HMSN group. The CLSM images showed more superficial penetration in the HMSN and Q@HMSN groups than in the quercetin, NaF, and DW groups. The Q@HMSN group exhibited a significantly lower EDL and reduced ICTP levels compared to the other groups (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Q@HMSNs hold promise for inhibiting dentine erosion and abrasion by promoting tubule occlusion and DOM preservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Min Chen
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Fujian Provincial Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterial and Stomatological Key Laboratory of Fujian College and University, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yi-Ling Cheng
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Fujian Provincial Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterial and Stomatological Key Laboratory of Fujian College and University, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Meng-Hui Yang
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Fujian Provincial Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterial and Stomatological Key Laboratory of Fujian College and University, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Chen Su
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Fujian Provincial Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterial and Stomatological Key Laboratory of Fujian College and University, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Hao Yu
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Fujian Provincial Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterial and Stomatological Key Laboratory of Fujian College and University, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Department of Prosthodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Clinic for Conservative and Preventive Dentistry, Center of Dental Medicine, University Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Applied Prosthodontics, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
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Xi Y, Shen J, Li X, Bao Y, Zhao T, Li B, Zhang X, Wang J, Bao Y, Gao J, Xie Z, Wang Q, Luo Q, Shi H, Li Z, Qin D. Regulatory Effects of Quercetin on Bone Homeostasis: Research Updates and Future Perspectives. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2023; 51:2077-2094. [PMID: 37815494 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x23500891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
The imbalance of bone homeostasis has become a major public medical problem amid the background of an aging population, which is closely related to the occurrence of osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and fractures. Presently, most drugs used in the clinical treatment of bone homeostasis imbalance are bisphosphonates, calcitonin, estrogen receptor modulators, and biological agents that inhibit bone resorption or parathyroid hormone analogs that promote bone formation. However, there are many adverse reactions. Therefore, it is necessary to explore potential drugs. Quercetin, as a flavonol compound with various biological activities, is widely distributed in plants. Studies have found that quercetin can regulate bone homeostasis through multiple pathways and targets. An in-depth exploration of the pharmacological mechanism of quercetin is of great significance for the development of new drugs. This review discusses the therapeutic mechanisms of quercetin on bone homeostasis, such as regulating the expression of long non-coding RNA, signaling pathways of bone metabolism, various types of programmed cell death, bone nutrients supply pathways, anti-oxidative stress, anti-inflammation, and activation of Sirtuins. We also summarize recent progress in improving quercetin bioavailability and propose some issues worth paying attention to, which may help guide future research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujiang Xi
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
- Open and Shared Public Science and Technology Service Platform, Traditional Chinese Medicine Science and Technology Resources in Yunnan, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Jiayan Shen
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
- Open and Shared Public Science and Technology Service Platform, Traditional Chinese Medicine Science and Technology Resources in Yunnan, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Xiahuang Li
- The People's Hospital of Mengzi, The Affiliated Hospital of Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Mengzi, Yunnan 661100, P. R. China
| | - Yi Bao
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P. R. China
| | - Ting Zhao
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Bo Li
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhang
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Jian Wang
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Yanyuan Bao
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Jiamei Gao
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Zhaohu Xie
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Qi Wang
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Qiu Luo
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P. R. China
| | - Hongling Shi
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming, Yunnan 650011, P. R. China
| | - Zhaofu Li
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
| | - Dongdong Qin
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
- Open and Shared Public Science and Technology Service Platform, Traditional Chinese Medicine Science and Technology Resources in Yunnan, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, P. R. China
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Santhamoorthy M, Ramkumar V, Thirupathi K, Gnanasekaran L, Karuppannan V, Phan TTV, Kim SC. L-lysine Functionalized Mesoporous Silica Hybrid Nanoparticles for pH-Responsive Delivery of Curcumin. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1631. [PMID: 37376080 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Stimuli-responsive controlled drug delivery systems have attracted the attention of researchers in recent decades due to their potential application in developing efficient drug carriers that are responsive to applied stimuli triggers. In this work, we present the synthesis of L-lysine (an amino acid that combines both amine and carboxylic acid groups in a single unit) modified mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MS@Lys NPs) for the delivery of the anticancer bioactive agent (curcumin, Cur) to cancer cells. To begin, mesoporous silica hybrid nanoparticles (MS@GPTS NPs) with 3-glycidoxypropyl trimethoxy silane (GPTS) were synthesized. The L-lysine groups were then functionalized onto the mesopore channel surfaces of the MS@GPTS NPs through a ring-opening reaction between the epoxy groups of the GPTS and the amine groups of the L-lysine units. Several instrumental techniques were used to examine the structural properties of the prepared L-lysine-modified mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MS@Lys NPs). The drug loading and pH-responsive drug delivery behavior of MS@Lys NPs were studied at different pH levels (pH 7.4, 6.5, and 4.0) using curcumin (Cur) as a model anticancer bioactive agent. The MS@Lys NPs' in vitro cytocompatibility and cell uptake behavior were also examined using MDA-MB-231 cells. The experimental results imply that MS@Lys NPs might be used in cancer therapy as pH-responsive drug delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vanaraj Ramkumar
- School of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Kokila Thirupathi
- Department of Physics, Government Arts and Science College for Women, Karimangalam, Dharmapuri 635111, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Lalitha Gnanasekaran
- Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Tarapacá, Avda. General Velásquez 1775, Arica 1000007, Chile
| | - Vanitha Karuppannan
- Department of Physics, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Erode 638401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Thi Tuong Vy Phan
- Center for Advanced Chemistry, Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, 03 Quang Trung, Hai Chau, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam
- Faculty of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Duy Tan University, 03 Quang Trung, Hai Chau, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam
| | - Seong-Cheol Kim
- School of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
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Dos Santos da Silva A, Dos Santos JHZ. Stöber method and its nuances over the years. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2023; 314:102888. [PMID: 37001206 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2023.102888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Some characteristics of silica-based materials, such as the control/adjustment of their physical and chemical properties, compatibility, and friendly-use synthesis methods, have held the attention of several scientific groups over the years. This condition of prominence becomes even more evident when we seek these characteristics at the micro- and/or nanoscale. Among existing methods to obtain these micro/nanomaterials, the Stöber method is the focus of this review. This method is known to enable the production of silica micro- or nanoparticles from reagents of medium-easy manipulation under mild conditions using equipment that is common in most laboratories. However, this method has many nuances that must be considered to guarantee accurate results, either in size or distribution, and to ensure result reproducibility. Thus, in this review, we discuss the effects of the primary components used in the synthesis of these materials (i.e., TEOS, ammonia, and water), as well as those of other reaction conditions, such as solvent, temperature, and ionic strength. Therefore, we discuss studies involving the synthesis and characterization of micro- and nanoparticles over the years to establish discussions between their experimental observations and proposed models. This review provides experimental observations about the synthesis of these materials, as well as discussions according to complementary and/or contradictory evidence found over the years. This review seeks to help those who intend to work with this method and provide certain key points that, in our experience, can be important to obtain desired results.
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