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Mladenovic Stokanic M, Simovic A, Jovanovic V, Radomirovic M, Udovicki B, Krstic Ristivojevic M, Djukic T, Vasovic T, Acimovic J, Sabljic L, Lukic I, Kovacevic A, Cujic D, Gnjatovic M, Smiljanic K, Stojadinovic M, Radosavljevic J, Stanic-Vucinic D, Stojanovic M, Rajkovic A, Cirkovic Velickovic T. Sandwich ELISA for the Quantification of Nucleocapsid Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Based on Polyclonal Antibodies from Two Different Species. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:333. [PMID: 38203504 PMCID: PMC10778659 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
In this study, a cost-effective sandwich ELISA test, based on polyclonal antibodies, for routine quantification SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid (N) protein was developed. The recombinant N protein was produced and used for the production of mice and rabbit antisera. Polyclonal N protein-specific antibodies served as capture and detection antibodies. The prototype ELISA has LOD 0.93 ng/mL and LOQ 5.3 ng/mL, with a linear range of 1.52-48.83 ng/mL. N protein heat pretreatment (56 °C, 1 h) decreased, while pretreatment with 1% Triton X-100 increased analytical ELISA sensitivity. The diagnostic specificity of ELISA was 100% (95% CI, 91.19-100.00%) and sensitivity was 52.94% (95% CI, 35.13-70.22%) compared to rtRT-PCR (Ct < 40). Profoundly higher sensitivity was obtained using patient samples mostly containing Wuhan-similar variants (Wuhan, alpha, and delta), 62.50% (95% CI, 40.59 to 81.20%), in comparison to samples mostly containing Wuhan-distant variants (Omicron) 30.00% (6.67-65.25%). The developed product has relatively high diagnostic sensitivity in relation to its analytical sensitivity due to the usage of polyclonal antibodies from two species, providing a wide repertoire of antibodies against multiple N protein epitopes. Moreover, the fast, simple, and inexpensive production of polyclonal antibodies, as the most expensive assay components, would result in affordable antigen tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Mladenovic Stokanic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ana Simovic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vesna Jovanovic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Mirjana Radomirovic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Bozidar Udovicki
- Department of Food Safety and Quality Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, Zemun, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Maja Krstic Ristivojevic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Teodora Djukic
- Institute of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Višegradska 26, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Tamara Vasovic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Acimovic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ljiljana Sabljic
- Institute for the Application of Nuclear Energy—INEP, University of Belgrade, Banatska 31b, Zemun, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivana Lukic
- Institute of Virology, Vaccines, and Sera–TORLAK, Vojvode Stepe 458, 11152 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ana Kovacevic
- Institute of Virology, Vaccines, and Sera–TORLAK, Vojvode Stepe 458, 11152 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Danica Cujic
- Institute for the Application of Nuclear Energy—INEP, University of Belgrade, Banatska 31b, Zemun, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marija Gnjatovic
- Institute for the Application of Nuclear Energy—INEP, University of Belgrade, Banatska 31b, Zemun, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Katarina Smiljanic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marija Stojadinovic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Radosavljevic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dragana Stanic-Vucinic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marijana Stojanovic
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute for Biological Research “Siniša Stanković”, University of Belgrade, 142 Despot Stefan Blvd., 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Andreja Rajkovic
- Department of Food Safety and Quality Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, Zemun, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia
- Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, geb. A, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tanja Cirkovic Velickovic
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
- Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, geb. A, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Kneza Mihaila 35, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
- Global Campus, Ghent University, 119-5 Songdomunwha-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21985, Republic of Korea
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Baurand PE, Balland J, Galli E, Eklin S, Bruley R, Ringenbach L. New Anti-RSV Nucleoprotein Monoclonal Antibody Pairs Discovered Using Rabbit Phage Display Technology. Antibodies (Basel) 2023; 12:73. [PMID: 37987251 PMCID: PMC10660478 DOI: 10.3390/antib12040073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is one of the major contagious viruses and causes complicated respiratory issues, especially in young children. The sensitive and fast detection of hRSV is critical for taking the most effective actions. In the present study, rabbit antibodies against the hRSV nucleoprotein (NP) were developed using phage display technology. A female rabbit was immunized with an hRSV strain A2 recombinant NP. A Fab library was built and sorted during two successive panning rounds for strain B and the A2 NP (recombinant preparations), respectively. The choice of candidates was performed using ELISA on the two NP strains. The obtained library was 3 × 106 cfu/mL, with an insertion rate of >95%. The two panning rounds permitted an enrichment factor of 100. ELISA screening allowed us to obtain 28 NP-specific Fab candidates. Among them, 10 retained candidates were reformatted into rabbit full IgG; thereafter, pairing tests on the recombinant strains and native lysate samples were performed. After the pairing tests on the recombinant strains, 53 pairs were identified. Eleven pairs were identified as being able to detect RSVs from native lysates. This work presents new high-potential monoclonal antibodies mAbs (mAbs), which would benefit from lateral flow testing data with patient materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Emmanuel Baurand
- Diaclone SAS—Part of Medix Biochemica Group, 6 Rue Dr Jean-François-Xavier Girod, BP 1985, 25000 Besançon, France
| | - Jérémy Balland
- Diaclone SAS—Part of Medix Biochemica Group, 6 Rue Dr Jean-François-Xavier Girod, BP 1985, 25000 Besançon, France
| | - Emilia Galli
- Medix Biochemica Group, Headquarter, Klovinpellontie 3, FI-02180 Espoo, Finland
| | - Suvi Eklin
- Medix Biochemica Group, Headquarter, Klovinpellontie 3, FI-02180 Espoo, Finland
| | - Rémy Bruley
- Diaclone SAS—Part of Medix Biochemica Group, 6 Rue Dr Jean-François-Xavier Girod, BP 1985, 25000 Besançon, France
| | - Laurence Ringenbach
- Diaclone SAS—Part of Medix Biochemica Group, 6 Rue Dr Jean-François-Xavier Girod, BP 1985, 25000 Besançon, France
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Bean DJ, Monroe J, Liang YM, Borberg E, Senussi Y, Swank Z, Chalise S, Walt D, Weinberg J, Sagar M. Heterotypic responses against nsp12/nsp13 from prior SARS-CoV-2 infection associates with lower subsequent endemic coronavirus incidence. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.23.563621. [PMID: 37961343 PMCID: PMC10634759 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.23.563621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Immune responses from prior SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 vaccination do not prevent re-infections and may not protect against future novel coronaviruses (CoVs). We examined the incidence of and immune differences against human endemic CoVs (eCoV) as a proxy for response against future emerging CoVs. Assessment was among those with known SARS-CoV-2 infection, COVID-19 vaccination but no documented SARS-CoV-2 infection, or neither exposure. Retrospective cohort analyses suggest that prior SARS-CoV-2 infection, but not COVID-19 vaccination alone, protects against subsequent symptomatic eCoV infection. CD8+ T cell responses to the non-structural eCoV proteins, nsp12 and nsp13, were significantly higher in individuals with previous SARS-CoV-2 infection as compared to the other groups. The three groups had similar cellular responses against the eCoV spike and nucleocapsid, and those with prior spike exposure had lower eCoV-directed neutralizing antibodies. Incorporation of non-structural viral antigens in a future pan-CoV vaccine may improve protection against future heterologous CoV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Bean
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Microbiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA
| | - Janet Monroe
- Department of Medicine, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA
| | - Yan Mei Liang
- Department of Medicine, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA
| | - Ella Borberg
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA
| | - Yasmeen Senussi
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA
| | - Zoe Swank
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA
| | - Sujata Chalise
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA
| | - David Walt
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA
| | - Janice Weinberg
- Department of Biostatistics, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - Manish Sagar
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Microbiology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA
- Department of Medicine, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA
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Mathur S, So M, Tahir P, Peluso MJ, Martin JN, Kelly JD. Performance of Blood-Based Nucleocapsid Antigen Tests for Diagnosis of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection and Infectious Viral Shedding: A Systematic Review. Open Forum Infect Dis 2023; 10:ofad346. [PMID: 37547852 PMCID: PMC10400123 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofad346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Data on the performance of blood-based nucleocapsid antigen tests for diagnosing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and infectious viral shedding are limited. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a systematic review to assess the performance of blood-based nucleocapsid (N) antigen tests in diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infection and identifying infectiousness. This review was registered on PROSPERO (registration no. CRD42022339635). We comprehensively searched PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and the Coronavirus Research Database for relevant studies published through 27 February 2023. Each study's risk of bias was evaluated using the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies 2 (QUADAS-2) tool. Our findings indicate that the performance of the N-antigen test is influenced by factors such as assay type, sampling timing, and illness severity. Sensitive assays provide suitable methods for viable screening and laboratory diagnostic tests in different clinical and research settings during the early phase of illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujata Mathur
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San
Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Matthew So
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San
Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Peggy Tahir
- UCSF Library, University of California, San Francisco,
CA, USA
| | - Michael J Peluso
- Division of HIV, Infectious Diseases, and Global Medicine, Zuckerberg San
Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco,
California, USA
| | - Jeffrey N Martin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San
Francisco, CA, USA
| | - J Daniel Kelly
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San
Francisco, CA, USA
- Institute for Global Health Sciences, University of
California, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Francis I. Proctor foundation, University of California,
San Francisco, USA
- San Francisco Veterans Affairs Medical Centre, San
Francisco, CA, USA
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Compagnone A, Matheeussen A, De Vooght L, Cos P. Development and validation of a multiplex electrochemiluminescence immunoassay to evaluate dry eye disease in rat tear fluids. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12203. [PMID: 37500810 PMCID: PMC10374623 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39397-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Dry eye disease (DED) is a challenge in ophthalmology. Rat models represent valuable tools to study the pathophysiology and to develop novel treatments. A major challenge in DED research is detecting multiple biomarkers in a low tear volume sample. Multiplex immunoassays for DED rat research are missing. We have developed a multiplex electrochemiluminescence immunoassay (ECLIA) to detect three biomarkers for DED: MMP-9, IL-17 and ICAM-1. Tears, used as matrix, were collected from six healthy Wistar rats. Assays were run based on the U-Plex Meso Scale Diagnostics (MSD) platform, by two independent operators according to the EMA guideline on bioanalytical method validation. Linear mixed, regression models were fit to perform the statistical analysis on the range of concentrations for the chosen analytes. During optimization, it has observed that incubation time, temperature and agitation affected the robustness of the protocol. ECLIA optimum conditions include the use of antibodies at 0.5 µg/ml concentration and 1 h incubation at room temperature with shaking. Precision met the acceptance criteria in the chosen range: 1062-133 pg/ml for ICAM-1, 275-34.4 pg/ml for IL-17, 1750-219 pg/ml for MMP-9. Accuracy and linearity were acceptable for a broader range. This is the first report of a validated ECLIA that allows measurements of three relevant DED biomarkers in rat tear fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnese Compagnone
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken D.S.723, FFBD-FDFAR-LMPH, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - An Matheeussen
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken D.S.723, FFBD-FDFAR-LMPH, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Linda De Vooght
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken D.S.723, FFBD-FDFAR-LMPH, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Paul Cos
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken D.S.723, FFBD-FDFAR-LMPH, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium
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6
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Guang Y, Hui L. Determining half-life of SARS-CoV-2 antigen in respiratory secretion. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:69697-69702. [PMID: 37129805 PMCID: PMC10151215 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-27326-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is primarily transmitted from person to person through respiratory droplets and aerosols. It is also possible for the virus to be transmitted indirectly through environmental contamination. The likelihood of environmental transmission depends on several factors, including the survival time of the virus in respiratory secretions. However, the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in respiratory secretions has not been investigated. In this study, we compared the half-life of the SARS-CoV-2 antigen in respiratory secretion under different conditions. We applied respiratory secretion (5 µL) to glass slides, air-dried the slides for 1 h, and kept them at 24 °C or 4 °C for 10 days. Respiratory secretions were also placed in test tubes (sealed to preserve moisture) and in normal saline for 10 days. The concentration of SARS-CoV-2 antigen in all samples was simultaneously measured using colloidal gold immunochromatography, and the half-life of the antigen was calculated. The half-life of the antigen in the wet (sealed tube) and saline samples at room temperature was 5.0 and 2.92 days, respectively. The half-life of the antigen in the air-dried sample at room temperature and at 4 °C was 2.93 and 11.4 days, respectively. The half-life was longer in respiratory secretions than that in normal saline. The half-life was also longer in respiratory secretions, at a lower temperature, and under wet conditions. Therefore, environmental transmission can also play a significant role in the spread of the virus. Robust prevention and control strategies could be developed based on the half-life of the antigen in respiratory secretions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Guang
- Department of Laboratory and Quarantine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China
| | - Liu Hui
- Department of Laboratory and Quarantine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116044, China.
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Ganesh S, Dhinakaran AK, Premnath P, Venkatakrishnan K, Tan B. Label-Free Saliva Test for Rapid Detection of Coronavirus Using Nanosensor-Enabled SERS. Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:bioengineering10030391. [PMID: 36978782 PMCID: PMC10045265 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10030391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the inadequacies of existing diagnostic techniques and the need for rapid and accurate diagnostic systems. Although molecular tests such as RT-PCR are the gold standard, they cannot be employed as point-of-care testing systems. Hence, a rapid, noninvasive diagnostic technique such as Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a promising analytical technique for rapid molecular or viral diagnosis. Here, we have designed a SERS- based test to rapidly diagnose SARS-CoV-2 from saliva. Physical methods synthesized the nanostructured sensor. It significantly increased the detection specificity and sensitivity by ~ten copies/mL of viral RNA (~femtomolar concentration of nucleic acids). Our technique combines the multiplexing capability of SERS with the sensitivity of novel nanostructures to detect whole virus particles and infection-associated antibodies. We have demonstrated the feasibility of the test with saliva samples from individuals who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 with a specificity of 95%. The SERS-based test provides a promising breakthrough in detecting potential mutations that may come up with time while also preparing the world to deal with other pandemics in the future with rapid response and very accurate results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swarna Ganesh
- Keenan Research Center for Biomedical Science, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology (I BEST), Partnership between Toronto Metropolitan University and St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
- Ultrashort Laser Nanomanufacturing Research Facility, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Ashok Kumar Dhinakaran
- Keenan Research Center for Biomedical Science, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology (I BEST), Partnership between Toronto Metropolitan University and St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
- Ultrashort Laser Nanomanufacturing Research Facility, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Priyatha Premnath
- Department of biomedical engineering, College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA
| | - Krishnan Venkatakrishnan
- Keenan Research Center for Biomedical Science, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology (I BEST), Partnership between Toronto Metropolitan University and St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
- Ultrashort Laser Nanomanufacturing Research Facility, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Bo Tan
- Keenan Research Center for Biomedical Science, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Science and Technology (I BEST), Partnership between Toronto Metropolitan University and St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, ON M5B 1W8, Canada
- Nanocharacterization Laboratory, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Toronto Metropolitan University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
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