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Makwana M, Patel AM. Bionanosensor utilizing single-layer graphene for the detection of iridovirus. J Mol Model 2024; 30:256. [PMID: 38972935 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-024-06035-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
CONTEXT Iridoviruses, a group of double-stranded DNA viruses, pose a significant threat to various aquatic animals, causing substantial economic losses in aquaculture and impacting ecosystem health. Early and accurate detection of these viruses is crucial for effective disease management and control. Conventional diagnostic methods, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and virus isolation, often require specialized laboratories, skilled personnel, and considerable time. This highlights the need for rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective diagnostic tools for iridovirus detection. Single-layer graphene, a two-dimensional material with unique properties like high surface area, excellent electrical conductivity, and chemical stability, has emerged as a versatile platform for biosensing applications. This paper explores the potential of employing single-layer graphene in the development of a bionanosensor for the sensitive and rapid detection of iridoviruses. The aim of the present investigation is to develop a sensor by analyzing the vibrational responses of single-layer graphene sheets (SLGS) with attached microorganisms. Graphene-based virus sensors typically rely on the interaction between the virus and the graphene surface, which lead to changes in the frequency response of graphene. This change is measured and used to detect the presence of the virus. Its high surface-to-volume ratio and sensitivity to changes in its frequency make it a highly sensitive platform for virus detection. METHODS We employ finite element method (FEM) analysis to model the sensor's performance and optimize its design parameters. The simulation results highlight the sensor's potential for achieving high sensitivity and rapid detection of iridovirus. Bridged and simply supported with roller support boundary conditions applied at the ends of SLG structure. Simulations have been performed to see how SLG behaves when used as sensors. A single-layer graphene armchair SLG (5,5) with 50-nm length exhibits its highest frequency vibration at 8.66 × 106 Hz, with a mass of 1.2786 Zg. In contrast, a zigzag-SLG with a (18,0) configuration has its lowest frequency vibration at 2.82 × 105 Hz. This aids in comprehending the thresholds of detection and the influence of factors such as size, and boundary conditions on sensor effectiveness. These biosensors can be especially helpful in biological sciences and the medical field since they can considerably improve the treatment of patients, cancer early diagnosis, and pathogen identification when used in clinical environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manisha Makwana
- Mechanical Engineering Department, A D Patel Institute of Technology, CVM University, New Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India.
| | - Ajay M Patel
- Mechatronics Engineering Department, G.H. Patel College of Engineering & Technology, CVM University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India
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Al-Younis ZK, Almajidi YQ, Mansouri S, Ahmad I, Turdialiyev U, O Alsaab H, F Ramadan M, Joshi SK, Alawadi AH, Alsaalamy A. Label-Free Field Effect Transistors (FETs) for Fabrication of Point-of-Care (POC) Biomedical Detection Probes. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2024:1-22. [PMID: 38829552 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2024.2356842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Field effect transistors (FETs)-based detection probes are powerful platforms for quantification in biological media due to their sensitivity, ease of miniaturization, and ability to function in biological media. Especially, FET-based platforms have been utilized as promising probes for label-free detections with the potential for use in real-time monitoring. The integration of new materials in the FET-based probe enhances the analytical performance of the developed probes by increasing the active surface area, rejecting interfering agents, and providing the possibility for surface modification. Furthermore, the use of new materials eliminates the need for traditional labeling techniques, providing rapid and cost-effective detection of biological analytes. This review discusses the application of materials in the development of FET-based label-free systems for point-of-care (POC) analysis of different biomedical analytes from 2018 to 2024. The mechanism of action of the reported probes is discussed, as well as their pros and cons were also investigated. Also, the possible challenges and potential for the fabrication of commercial devices or methods for use in clinics were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yasir Qasim Almajidi
- Department of Pharmacy (Pharmaceutics), Baghdad College of Medical Sciences, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Sofiene Mansouri
- Department of Biomedical Technology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabiain
- Laboratory of Biophysics and Medical Technologies, Higher Institute of Medical Technologies of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Irfan Ahmad
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Science, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Umid Turdialiyev
- Department of Technical Sciences, Andijan Machine-Building Institute, Andijan, Uzbekistan
| | - Hashem O Alsaab
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - S K Joshi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Uttaranchal Institute of Technology, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, India
| | - Ahmed Hussien Alawadi
- College of Technical Engineering, the Islamic University, Najaf, Iraq
- College of Technical Engineering, the Islamic University of Al Diwaniyah, Al Diwaniyah, Iraq
- College of Technical Engineering, the Islamic University of Babylon, Babylon, Iraq
| | - Ali Alsaalamy
- College of Technical Engineering, Imam Ja'afar Al-Sadiq University, Al-Muthanna, Iraq
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Lozano-Chamizo L, Márquez C, Marciello M, Galdon JC, de la Fuente-Zapico E, Martinez-Mazón P, Gonzalez-Rumayor V, Filice M, Gamiz F. High enhancement of sensitivity and reproducibility in label-free SARS-CoV-2 detection with graphene field-effect transistor sensors through precise surface biofunctionalization control. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 250:116040. [PMID: 38290380 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2024.116040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has taught us valuable lessons, especially the urgent need for a widespread, rapid and sensitive diagnostic tool. To this, the integration of bidimensional nanomaterials, particularly graphene, into point-of-care biomedical devices is a groundbreaking strategy able to potentially revolutionize the diagnostic landscape. Despite advancements in the fabrication of these biosensors, the relationship between their surface biofunctionalization and sensing performance remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the combination of careful sensor fabrication and its precise surface biofunctionalization is crucial for exalting the sensing performances of 2D biosensors. Specifically, we have biofunctionalized Graphene Field-Effect Transistor (GFET) sensors surface through different biochemical reactions to promote either random/heterogeneous or oriented/homogeneous immobilization of the Anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike protein antibody. Each strategy was thoroughly characterized by in-silico simulations, physicochemical and biochemical techniques and electrical characterization. Subsequently, both biosensors were tested in the label-free direct titration of SARS-CoV-2 virus in simulated clinical samples, avoiding sample preprocessing and within short timeframes. Remarkably, the oriented GFET biosensor exhibited significantly enhanced reproducibility and responsiveness, surpassing the detection sensitivity of conventional non-oriented GFET by more than twofold. This breakthrough not only involves direct implications for COVID-19 surveillance and next pandemic preparedness but also clarify an unexplored mechanistic dimension of biosensor research utilizing 2D-nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Lozano-Chamizo
- Nanobiotechnology for Life Sciences Laboratory, Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, E-28040, Madrid, Spain; Microscopy and Dynamic Imaging Unit, Fundación Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Calle Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, E-28029, Madrid, Spain; Atrys Health, E-28001, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Márquez
- Nanoelectronics Research Group, Department of Electronics, CITIC-UGR (Research Center for Information and Communication Technologies), University of Granada, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Granada ibs.GRANADA, 18012, Granada, Spain
| | - Marzia Marciello
- Nanobiotechnology for Life Sciences Laboratory, Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, E-28040, Madrid, Spain; Microscopy and Dynamic Imaging Unit, Fundación Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Calle Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, E-28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Carlos Galdon
- Nanoelectronics Research Group, Department of Electronics, CITIC-UGR (Research Center for Information and Communication Technologies), University of Granada, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Granada ibs.GRANADA, 18012, Granada, Spain
| | - Elsa de la Fuente-Zapico
- Nanoelectronics Research Group, Department of Electronics, CITIC-UGR (Research Center for Information and Communication Technologies), University of Granada, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Granada ibs.GRANADA, 18012, Granada, Spain
| | - Paula Martinez-Mazón
- Nanoelectronics Research Group, Department of Electronics, CITIC-UGR (Research Center for Information and Communication Technologies), University of Granada, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Granada ibs.GRANADA, 18012, Granada, Spain
| | | | - Marco Filice
- Nanobiotechnology for Life Sciences Laboratory, Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, E-28040, Madrid, Spain; Microscopy and Dynamic Imaging Unit, Fundación Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Calle Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, E-28029, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Francisco Gamiz
- Nanoelectronics Research Group, Department of Electronics, CITIC-UGR (Research Center for Information and Communication Technologies), University of Granada, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Granada ibs.GRANADA, 18012, Granada, Spain.
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Sengupta J, Hussain CM. Graphene transistor-based biosensors for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2. Bioelectrochemistry 2024; 156:108623. [PMID: 38070365 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2023.108623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Field-effect transistor (FET) biosensors use FETs to detect changes in the amount of electrical charge caused by biomolecules like antigens and antibodies. COVID-19 can be detected by employing these biosensors by immobilising bio-receptor molecules that bind to the SARS-CoV-2 virus on the FET channel surface and subsequent monitoring of the changes in the current triggered by the virus. Graphene Field-effect Transistor (GFET)-based biosensors utilise graphene, a two-dimensional material with high electrical conductivity, as the sensing element. These biosensors can rapidly detect several biomolecules including the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which is responsible for COVID-19. GFETs are ideal for real-time infectious illness diagnosis due to their great sensitivity and specificity. These graphene transistor-based biosensors could revolutionise clinical diagnostics by generating fast, accurate data that could aid pandemic management. GFETs can also be integrated into point-of-care (POC) diagnostic equipment. Recent advances in GFET-type biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection are discussed here, along with their associated challenges and future scope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joydip Sengupta
- Department of Electronic Science, Jogesh Chandra Chaudhuri College, Kolkata 700033, India.
| | - Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, 07102, NJ, USA.
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Szymborski TR, Berus SM, Nowicka AB, Słowiński G, Kamińska A. Machine Learning for COVID-19 Determination Using Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy. Biomedicines 2024; 12:167. [PMID: 38255271 PMCID: PMC10813688 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12010167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The rapid, low cost, and efficient detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus infection, especially in clinical samples, remains a major challenge. A promising solution to this problem is the combination of a spectroscopic technique: surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) with advanced chemometrics based on machine learning (ML) algorithms. In the present study, we conducted SERS investigations of saliva and nasopharyngeal swabs taken from a cohort of patients (saliva: 175; nasopharyngeal swabs: 114). Obtained SERS spectra were analyzed using a range of classifiers in which random forest (RF) achieved the best results, e.g., for saliva, the precision and recall equals 94.0% and 88.9%, respectively. The results demonstrate that even with a relatively small number of clinical samples, the combination of SERS and shallow machine learning can be used to identify SARS-CoV-2 virus in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz R. Szymborski
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Sylwia M. Berus
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Ariadna B. Nowicka
- Institute for Materials Research and Quantum Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Poznan, Poland;
| | - Grzegorz Słowiński
- Department of Software Engineering, Warsaw School of Computer Science, Lewartowskiego 17, 00-169 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Agnieszka Kamińska
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland;
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Abrha FH, Wondimu TH, Kahsay MH, Fufa Bakare F, Andoshe DM, Kim JY. Graphene-based biosensors for detecting coronavirus: a brief review. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:18184-18197. [PMID: 37927083 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr04583h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
The coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) disease has affected the globe with 770 437 327 confirmed cases, including about 6 956 900 deaths, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) as of September 2023. Hence, it is imperative to develop diagnostic technologies, such as a rapid cost-effective SARS-CoV-2 detection method. A typical biosensor enables biomolecule detection with an appropriate transducer by generating a measurable signal from the sample. Graphene can be employed as a component for ultrasensitive and selective biosensors based on its physical, optical, and electrochemical properties. Herein, we briefly review graphene-based electrochemical, field-effect transistor (FET), and surface plasmon biosensors for detecting the SARS-CoV-2 target. In addition, details on the surface modification, immobilization, sensitivity and limit of detection (LOD) of all three sensors with regard to SARS-CoV-2 were reported. Finally, the point-of-care (POC) detection of SARS-CoV-2 using a portable smartphone and a wearable watch is a current topic of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filimon Hadish Abrha
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Aksum University, Aksum 1010, Ethiopia
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia.
| | - Tadele Hunde Wondimu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia.
- Center of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia
| | - Mebrahtu Hagos Kahsay
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle 231, Ethiopia
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia
| | - Fetene Fufa Bakare
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia.
- Center of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia
| | - Dinsefa Mensur Andoshe
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia.
| | - Jung Yong Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia.
- Center of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama 1888, Ethiopia
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Zhang C, Parichenko A, Choi W, Shin S, Panes-Ruiz LA, Belyaev D, Custódio TF, Löw C, Lee JS, Ibarlucea B, Cuniberti G. Sybodies as Novel Bioreceptors toward Field-Effect Transistor-Based Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Antigens. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:40191-40200. [PMID: 37603713 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c06073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has increased the demand for low-cost, portable, and rapid biosensors, driving huge research efforts toward new nanomaterial-based approaches with high sensitivity. Many of them employ antibodies as bioreceptors, which have a costly development process that requires animal facilities. Recently, sybodies emerged as a new alternative class of synthetic binders and receptors with high antigen binding efficiency, improved chemical stability, and lower production costs via animal-free methods. Their smaller size is an important asset to consider in combination with ultrasensitive field-effect transistors (FETs) as transducers, which respond more intensely when biorecognition occurs near their surface. This work demonstrates the immobilization of sybodies against the spike protein of the virus on silicon surfaces, which are often integral parts of the semiconducting channel of FETs. Immobilized sybodies maintain the capability to capture antigens, even at low concentrations in the femtomolar range, as observed by fluorescence microscopy. Finally, the first proof of concept of sybody-modified FET sensing is provided using a nanoscopic silicon net as the sensitive area where the sybodies are immobilized. The future development of further sybodies against other biomarkers and their generalization in biosensors could be critical to decrease the cost of biodetection platforms in future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi Zhang
- Institute for Materials Science and Max Bergmann Center for Biomaterials, Dresden University of Technology, Dresden 01069, Germany
| | - Alexandra Parichenko
- Institute for Materials Science and Max Bergmann Center for Biomaterials, Dresden University of Technology, Dresden 01069, Germany
| | - Wonyeong Choi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea
| | - Seonghwan Shin
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea
| | - Luis Antonio Panes-Ruiz
- Institute for Materials Science and Max Bergmann Center for Biomaterials, Dresden University of Technology, Dresden 01069, Germany
| | - Dmitry Belyaev
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Keramische Technologien und Systeme IKTS, Dresden 01109, Germany
| | - Tânia Filipa Custódio
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology (CSSB), European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Hamburg, Notkestraße 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany, Notkestraße 85, Hamburg 22607, Germany
| | - Christian Löw
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology (CSSB), European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Hamburg, Notkestraße 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany, Notkestraße 85, Hamburg 22607, Germany
| | - Jeong-Soo Lee
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea
| | - Bergoi Ibarlucea
- Institute for Materials Science and Max Bergmann Center for Biomaterials, Dresden University of Technology, Dresden 01069, Germany
| | - Gianaurelio Cuniberti
- Institute for Materials Science and Max Bergmann Center for Biomaterials, Dresden University of Technology, Dresden 01069, Germany
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Kim HE, Schuck A, Park H, Huh HJ, Kang M, Kim YS. Gold nanostructures modified carbon-based electrode enhanced with methylene blue for point-of-care COVID-19 tests using isothermal amplification. Talanta 2023; 265:124841. [PMID: 37390671 PMCID: PMC10290770 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.124841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) envelope (E) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) genes were detected via electrochemical measurements using a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) (3-electrode system) coupled with a battery-operated thin-film heater based on the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) technique. The working electrodes of the SPCE sensor were decorated with synthesized gold nanostars (AuNSs) to obtain a large surface area and improve sensitivity. The LAMP assay was enhanced using a real-time amplification reaction system to detect the optimal target genes (E and RdRP) of SARS-CoV-2. The optimized LAMP assay was performed with diluted concentrations (from 0 to 109 copies) of the target DNA using 30 μM of methylene blue as a redox indicator. Target DNA amplification was conducted for 30 min at a constant temperature using a thin-film heater, and the final amplicon electrical signals were detected based on cyclic voltammetry curves. Our electrochemical LAMP analysis of SARS-CoV-2 clinical samples showed an excellent correlation with the Ct value of real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, indicating successful validation of results. A linear relationship between the peak current response and the amplified DNA was observed for both genes. The AuNS-decorated SPCE sensor with the optimized LAMP primer enabled accurate analysis of both SARS-CoV-2-positive and -negative clinical samples. Therefore, the developed device is suitable for use as a point-of-care test DNA-based sensor for the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyo Eun Kim
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ariadna Schuck
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeonseek Park
- Biomedical Engineering Research Center, Smart Healthcare Research Institute, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Medical Device Management and Research, SAIHST (Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences & Technology), Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Jae Huh
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Genetics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul 06351, South Korea
| | - Minhee Kang
- Biomedical Engineering Research Center, Smart Healthcare Research Institute, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Medical Device Management and Research, SAIHST (Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences & Technology), Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Yong-Sang Kim
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea.
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