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Altan H, Gönder HY, Demirel E, Altan A, Tunçdemir AR, Zahra D, Al Maweri SA, Ali K. Readiness for clinical practice: Self-perceived confidence of final year dental students in Turkey - A multi-institutional study. MEDEDPUBLISH 2024; 14:9. [PMID: 39118866 PMCID: PMC11306955 DOI: 10.12688/mep.20115.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The primary aim of undergraduate dental education is to prepare dental students for independent dental practice and to enable them to provide safe and effective dental care. This study aimed to investigate the self-perceived preparedness of senior dental undergraduate students in Turkey. Methods Purposive sampling was used to recruit final-year dental students from 10 dental institutions offering undergraduate dental programs in Turkey. Student preparedness was assessed using a previously validated dental preparedness assessment scale based on 50 items encompassing core clinical skills, cognitive attributes, and behavioral skills. The research instrument was then translated into Turkish. The R statistical environment for Windows was used for the data analysis. Results Responses were provided by 272 students (156 women and 116 men; 57% and 43%, respectively) across 10 different universities. The mean score of the participants was 75.68 with slightly higher scores for men compared to women (77.35 vs. 74.46 respectively). However, independent t-tests showed that the scores did not differ significantly between women and men. Conclusions This study evaluated the self-perceived preparedness for dental practice of final-year students from 10 universities in Turkey. Although the results showed several areas of weakness, the scores of self-perceived preparedness of Turkish students were comparable to those reported in Europe and Asia. These findings can be used to inform future curriculum development to support students in consolidating their learning in perceived areas of weakness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Halenur Altan
- Pediatric Dentistry Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Necmettin Erbakan University, Meram, Konya, Turkey
| | - Hakan Yasin Gönder
- Restorative Dentistry Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Necmettin Erbakan University, Meram, Konya, Turkey
| | - Elif Demirel
- Pediatric Dentistry Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Necmettin Erbakan University, Meram, Konya, Turkey
| | - Ahmet Altan
- Maxillofacial Surgery Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Necmettin Erbakan University, Meram, Konya, Turkey
| | - Ali Rıza Tunçdemir
- Prosthdontics Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Necmettin Erbakan University, Meram, Konya, Turkey
| | - Daniel Zahra
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, England, PL4 8AA, UK
| | | | - Kamran Ali
- College of Dental Medicine, Qatar University, Doha, Doha, 2713, Qatar
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Bagga R, McKee A. Metacognition in oral health education: A pedagogy worthy of further exploration. MEDICAL TEACHER 2024; 46:911-918. [PMID: 38019882 DOI: 10.1080/0142159x.2023.2287399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
AIM This study aimed to investigate the perceptions of dental students and teachers about introducing metacognition pedagogy within an established clinical professional curriculum to provide primary data informing its feasibility. METHODOLOGY AND METHOD A qualitative study using phenomenography methodology was undertaken as part of a master's dissertation. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on 16 participants which included 9 clinical teachers and 7 dental students. FINDINGS Metacognition pedagogy was positively perceived by most of the participants as being beneficial to students' learning in oral health education. A few reported some negativity. All participants identified some challenges to be addressed if a metacognition pedagogy was to be implemented in the undergraduate curriculum. CONCLUSION According to the perceptions of most participants in the study, metacognition emerged as a potential factor in improving student learning and exam performance, and facilitating the development of critical thinking, professionalism, and clinical skills. In the context of rigorous, demanding, and challenging courses, and recognising the complexities and uncertainties inherent in health professional working environments, metacognition emerges as a valuable tool, fostering self-awareness, regulation, and adaptability. Ultimately, metacognition has the capability to shape more adept learners and clinicians, yielding benefits for students, teachers, and patients alike.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Bagga
- King's College London, FoDOCS, Guy's Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anne McKee
- GKT School of Medical Education, London, United Kingdom
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Taylor MR, Carr SE, Baynes L, Kujan O. Student and clinical supervisor perceptions of community-based dental educational experiences: A scoping review. J Dent Educ 2024; 88:798-814. [PMID: 38349027 DOI: 10.1002/jdd.13491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE This scoping review was conducted to map the breadth of experiences in community-based dental education (CBDE), as reported by students and clinical supervisors. METHODS This scoping review was conducted following the structured framework proposed by Arksey and O'Malley and adhering to PRISMA-SCR guidelines for scoping reviews. Applying specified eligibility criteria, a systematic search of four electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science) was followed by data extraction and data synthesis of full-text articles. Research was conducted between June 2022 and September 2022. RESULTS Sixteen articles were identified for the final full-text review. Utilizing a narrative thematic review, the following five domains emerged: preparation for autonomous practice, understanding of primary care dentistry, understanding of health disparities and patient needs, clinical confidence, clinical diversity, and skill development, and perspectives on quality of teaching and assessment. CONCLUSION Community/outreach dental education effectively supplements traditional dental school-based education from the perspectives of students and community-based clinical supervisors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Millicent R Taylor
- Division of Health Professions Education, School of Allied Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Sandra E Carr
- Division of Health Professions Education, School of Allied Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Lida Baynes
- Division of Health Professions Education, School of Allied Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Omar Kujan
- UWA Dental School, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
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Javed MQ, Abulhamael AM, Ahmad Z, Muhammad M, Faridi MA, Khan KI, Habib SR, Ali K. Self-reported preparedness of final year undergraduate dental students and interns in Saudi Arabia: a multi-institutional study. BMC MEDICAL EDUCATION 2024; 24:282. [PMID: 38481299 PMCID: PMC10938702 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-024-05246-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Contemporary undergraduate dental education aims to equip the dental students with clinical competence, empathy, and professionalism to enable them to deliver safe and effective dental care to the communities. The purpose of this study was to assess the self-reported preparedness of final year dental students and interns at three Saudi dental institutions, using the pre-validated Dental Undergraduates Preparedness Assessment Scale (DU-PAS). METHODS A cross-sectional study design was employed to assess the self-reported preparedness of the participants using the DU-PAS. Following ethics approval, a probability sampling technique was used to recruit undergraduate dental students and interns from three dental institutions in Saudi Arabia. The data was collected online on Google Forms and all participants provided their consent to participate in the study prior to providing their responses to DU-PAS. RESULTS Responses were received from 397 participants including 171 males and 226 females yielding a response rate of 60.3%. The total mean score of the participants was 81.85 ± 13.11. Although higher scores were reported in males, the interaction between gender and DU-PAS scores were not significant. Interaction between DU-PAS scores and stage of education showed significant effect of the stage of education with interns reporting higher overall scores. The participants reported that they were able to perform most clinical procedures independently. However, low confidence was reported in performing multi-rooted endodontics, fabrication of removable dentures and orthodontic assessment. The participants also expressed their confidence in a wide range of behavioural attributes related to communication, teamworking and professionalism. However, lack of experience was noted in referral for oral cancer, interpreting research, and evaluation of new dental products using an evidence-based approach. CONCLUSION The study provides useful insights into the self-reported preparedness of undergraduate dental students and interns in three dental institutions. While the overall preparedness of the participants was comparable to their international peers, the findings underscore the need for further enhancements to the teaching and training of undergraduate students particularly in multirooted endodontics, removable prosthodontics and orthodontics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Qasim Javed
- Department of Conservative Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Qassim University, 51452, Buraidah, Qassim, PO Box 1162, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Ayman Moaz Abulhamael
- Department of Endodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, 21589, Jeddah, P.O. Box 80209, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zaina Ahmad
- Department of Operative Dentistry, Islamic International Dental College and Hospital, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Muhammad
- Department of Operative Dentistry, Islamic International Dental College and Hospital, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ali Faridi
- Restorative Dental Sciences Department, College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kiran Imtiaz Khan
- Department of Operative Dentistry, Frontier Medical and Dental College, Abbottabad, KPK, Pakistan
| | - Syed Rashid Habib
- Department of Prosthetic Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, King Saud University, King Abdullah Road, 11545, Riyadh, P. O. Box 60169, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kamran Ali
- College of Dental Medicine, Qatar University, 2713, Doha, Qatar.
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What every dental practitioner should know about how to examine patients with dental implants. Br Dent J 2023; 234:309-314. [PMID: 36899236 PMCID: PMC10005927 DOI: 10.1038/s41415-023-5574-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Dental implants are a common treatment modality provided in both primary and secondary care settings. It is increasingly common for a general dental practitioner to see patients with implant-retained restorations. This article suggests an implant safety checklist for general dental practitioners to help them examine an implant-retained prosthesis.
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McColl E. Outreach and clinical complexity. Br Dent J 2022; 232:759. [PMID: 35689035 DOI: 10.1038/s41415-022-4343-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Donnell CC, Thomas LR, Foley JI. Mind the 'GAPP': a pre-graduation assessment of preparedness for practice amid a pandemic. Br Dent J 2022; 232:556-567. [PMID: 35459832 PMCID: PMC9028899 DOI: 10.1038/s41415-022-4154-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Introduction 'Preparedness for practice' refers to a multifaceted concept, encompassing not only clinical skills, but also broader, non-clinical skills, such as communication and professionalism. Previous graduates have reported feeling less prepared for complex procedures, such as molar endodontics and surgical extractions. Dental students typically utilise their final year to refine their clinical skills, however, the COVID-19 pandemic has meant that newly qualified dentists will have had around six months where they have not performed clinical dentistry before beginning dental foundation training (DFT). Aims This study aimed to explore final year students' self-reported preparedness for practice, identify areas of relative weakness that may influence future training needs and to highlight any perceived impact of the pandemic on final year experience and potential impact on DFT. Materials and methods The current Graduate Assessment of Preparedness for Practice (GAPP) questionnaire was adapted for our specific research aims and piloted and the PreGAPP questionnaire distributed via the social media channels of dental school student societies. Analysis was carried out using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software using descriptive statistics and the Mann-Whitney U test for two unrelated variables. Results Responses were received from final year students across all 16 UK dental schools. Students reported increased preparedness across domains in which they had the most experience; for example, providing preventative advice and administering local anaesthesia. Male students reported feeling significantly more prepared than female students, mature students significantly more than younger students, and students on four-year courses significantly more than traditional five-year courses. The COVID-19 pandemic was expected to have a major-to-severe impact on undergraduate experience and future DFT prospects. Conclusion Dental graduates in the COVID-19 era may have significantly different training needs to those before them. Complex clinical procedures remain the areas where students feel they are least prepared for practice. The importance of a clinical passport to highlight current experience level to trainers, alongside the creation of a personal development plan at the beginning of DFT, will ensure that targeted and personalised training can be implemented where required. Illustrates the perceived effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on final year students' preparedness for practice and the impact it may have on dental foundation training through quantitative and qualitative methods. Highlights and explores the differences in the perceptions of preparedness for practice of final year students across sex, age and course length. Explores various aspects of clinical supervision and assessment and reinforces the importance of appropriate student-staff ratios to ensure clinical learning is effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Donnell
- Speciality Registrar in Paediatric Dentistry, Charles Clifford Dental Hospital, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK.
| | - Luke R Thomas
- Dental Core Trainee, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, St George´s University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Jennifer I Foley
- Deputy Director and Honorary Consultant in Paediatric Dentistry, Edinburgh Dental Institute, Edinburgh, UK; Senior Clinical Lecturer, Paediatric Dentistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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Khehra A, Steinberg N, Levin L. The role of educators, mentors, and motivation in shaping dental students to become life‐long learners: A pan‐Canadian survey. J Dent Educ 2022; 86:1369-1381. [DOI: 10.1002/jdd.12935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anahat Khehra
- Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry University of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada
| | - Noam Steinberg
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute and the Department of Pharmacology Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry University of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada
| | - Liran Levin
- Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry University of Alberta Edmonton Alberta Canada
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Quality, Effectiveness and Outcome of Blended Learning in Dental Education during the COVID Pandemic: Prospects of a Post-Pandemic Implementation. EDUCATION SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/educsci11120810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Blended learning is growing in popularity particularly following the emergence of COVID-19 pandemic. One of the fields that the pandemic has substantially affected is dental education. Purpose: The aim of this study was to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of the online dental education. Students’ perceptions and experiences of blended learning were also investigated. Methods: A 28-question online survey was designed to gauge students’ perceptions of the effect of blended learning on their academic performance. Results: 314 participants in preclinical and clinical years completed the questionnaire (223 females and 91 males). The majority of students (89%) believed that clinical and practical courses cannot be given by the internet. In terms of students’ opinion in the assessment process, more females (65.8%) preferred traditional exams than males (50.5%) (p < 0.05). Most clinical students (83%) preferred a combination of online and traditional teaching compared to 72% of preclinical students (p < 0.05). Clinical year students were more willing to communicate electronically with their classmates and instructors. The majority of dental students (65%) reported that future dental courses should be blended. Conclusions: In the pandemic era, blended learning, should become the preferred method of education whereby theoretical knowledge is delivered through online tutorials and clinical training is resumed on-site, to ensure competency of dental graduates while maintaining safety of the dental team. Current facilities and course designs should be improved in order to improve students’ experiences with blended learning.
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Ilić J, Radović K, Savić-Stanković T, Popovac A, Miletić V, Milić Lemić A. The effect of COVID-19 pandemic on final year dental students' self-confidence level in performing clinical procedures. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0257359. [PMID: 34648503 PMCID: PMC8516192 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has dramatically changed teaching approach in dental schools due to the switch to distance learning and the lack of practice training in direct contact with patients with possible impact on clinical skills of students. The aim of the study was to assess the level of the 2020 final year dental students' self-confidence in performing different dental procedures through specially designed questionnaire and compare it to self-confidence of the 2019 final year students. MATERIALS AND METHODS An anonymous questionnaire consisting of 40 questions regarding self-confidence level in performing 40 different dental procedures and based on five points Likert-like scale was distributed during November 2020 to final year dental students whose studies were disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in one semester. The study group comprised their answers. The comparison was done with the control group that consisted of students' answers on the same questionnaire from previous 2019 year conducted as a part of regular internal educational evaluation. RESULTS Response rate was 74.2% in study group and 89.3% in control group. Mean level of self-confidence reported by 115 students in study group was significantly lower than that reported by 100 students in control group (3.28±1.08 vs. 3.58±0.88, respectively) and the distribution of self-confidence scores were different in observed groups. Graduates from study group felt less confident than those from control in 8 clinical skills. CONCLUSION Abrupt changes in teaching modalities caused by COVID-19 pandemic had significant impact on final year dental students' self-confidence indicating additional educational needs in postgraduate period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jugoslav Ilić
- Department of Restorative Dentistry and Endodontics, School of Dental Medicine University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Katarina Radović
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Tatjana Savić-Stanković
- Department of Restorative Dentistry and Endodontics, School of Dental Medicine University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Aleksandra Popovac
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vesna Miletić
- Department of Restorative Dentistry and Endodontics, School of Dental Medicine University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Surry Hills, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Aleksandra Milić Lemić
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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Hattar S, AlHadidi A, Sawair FA, Alraheam IA, El-Ma'aita A, Wahab FK. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on dental education: online experience and practice expectations among dental students at the University of Jordan. BMC MEDICAL EDUCATION 2021; 21:151. [PMID: 33685451 PMCID: PMC7938292 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-021-02584-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The quarantine associated with the COVID-19 pandemic forced dental schools to suspend their clinical training and to shift to distant learning methods. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of quarantine on the self-perceived preparedness of dental graduates and to explore the efficacy of online education from students' perspectives. METHODS The questionnaire distributed to dental students comprised of two main sections. The first part covered the online education experience, and the second part measured the level of self-perceived preparedness for a range of cognitive, communication and professional skills. RESULTS The survey yielded a response rate of 72%. The majority of students (77%) agreed that they missed educational experiences as a result of the lockdown. More than half of them felt less motivated to follow-up with distant e-learning and believed that online assessment is not a good method for evaluation. A high percentage of the students (66%) thought that online group discussions had a positive value while 67% preferred online lectures compared to theatre lectures. Majority of students particularly 5th year (78.7%) (p < 0.001) stated that the quarantine increased their collaboration with their colleagues. According to 87% of students, the experience most negatively affected was their clinical training. In general, students showed satisfactory self-perceived preparedness related to a range of attributes and professional skills. CONCLUSIONS The data showed that students partially appreciated the online system, whereas they did not consider it a substitute for face to face clinical practice. The overall self-perceived preparedness level was promising; however students had reservations regarding independent practice following graduation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Hattar
- Department of Conservative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, The University of Jordan, Amman, 11942, Jordan.
| | - Abeer AlHadidi
- Department of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, Oral Medicine and Periodontology, School of Dentistry, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
| | - Faleh A Sawair
- Department of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, Oral Medicine and Periodontology, School of Dentistry, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
| | - Islam Abd Alraheam
- Department of Conservative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, The University of Jordan, Amman, 11942, Jordan
| | - Ahmad El-Ma'aita
- Department of Conservative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, The University of Jordan, Amman, 11942, Jordan
| | - Fouad Kadim Wahab
- Department of Conservative Dentistry, School of Dentistry, The University of Jordan, Amman, 11942, Jordan
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Movahedi S, Eliyas S, Fisher N. Early years postgraduate learning and training in prosthodontic dentistry: 2019 and beyond. Br Dent J 2019; 226:801-806. [DOI: 10.1038/s41415-019-0317-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Kuroski JA, Rouse KA, Cook N, Magee AP, Welbury R. In real life: evaluating primary care-based undergraduate dental education in Northwest England. Br Dent J 2019; 226:605-610. [PMID: 31028330 DOI: 10.1038/s41415-019-0204-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Aim To explore how working at dental education centres (DECs), away from the university campus, has influenced the attitudes of dental students towards providing dental care in a primary setting, and whether students feel that this model of dental education meets their perceived training needs.Design Exploratory, qualitative interview study.Methods Semi-structured interviews with five fourth BDS students, analysed using thematic analysis.Results The main theme identified was 'real life dentistry', as students described how their clinical experiences and the teaching at DECs would prepare them for life as a general dental practitioner. Students felt they had a positive impact on their patients, and although some felt they could not comment on the impact to the community, others thought that this was likely to be positive.Conclusion Students believed they experienced 'real life dentistry' which would prepare them well for their foundation year and future practice. They also believed they had a positive impact on their patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karen A Rouse
- University of Central Lancashire, School of Dentistry, Preston, UK.
| | - Neil Cook
- University of Central Lancashire, School of Dentistry, Preston, UK
| | - Angela P Magee
- University of Central Lancashire, School of Dentistry, Preston, UK
| | - Richard Welbury
- University of Central Lancashire, School of Dentistry, Preston, UK
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