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Ma X, Zhang M, Xia W, Song Y. Antitumor mechanism of Saikosaponin A in the Xiaoying Sanjie Decoction for treatment of anaplastic thyroid cancer by network pharmacology analysis and experiments in vitro and in vivo. Fitoterapia 2023; 170:105665. [PMID: 37673277 DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2023.105665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Effective therapies for anaplastic thyroid cancer (ATC) are still limited due to its dedifferentiated phenotype and high invasiveness. Xiaoying Sanjie Decoction (XYSJD), a clinically empirical Chinese medicine compound, has shown positive effects for ATC treatment and recovery. However, the pharmacological mechanisms of effective active compound in XYSJD remain unclear. In this study, we aimed at elucidating the antitumor mechanism of the active compound and identifying the kernel molecular mechanisms of XYSJD against ATC. Firstly, the main chemical constituents of XYSJD were identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS). Then we used network pharmacology and ClusterONE algorithm to analyze the possible targets and pathways of the prescription and active compound Saikosaponin A (SSA). Seven core targets, including P2RY12, PDK1, PPP1CC, PPP2CA, TBK1, ITGB1 and ITGB6, which may be involved in the anti-tumor activity of XYSJD were screened. Finally, using cell biology, molecular biology and experimental zoology techniques, we investigated the mechanism of active compound SSA in the treatment of ATC. The results of qRT-PCR indicated that these seven nuclear targets might play an important role in SSA, the active compound of XYSJD. The combined data provide preliminary study of the pharmacological mechanisms of SSA in XYSJD. SSA may be a promising potential therapeutic and chemopreventive candidate for ATC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaokun Ma
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, The Seventh People's Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Miao Zhang
- Central Laboratory, The Seventh People's Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Xia
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, The Seventh People's Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Yanan Song
- Central Laboratory, The Seventh People's Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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2
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Azolo substitution into the purine scaffold in nucleoside cyclic 3',5'-phosphorothioates. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00706-022-02980-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAzolation in the 8-position in the purine scaffold of cAMP (adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate) and cAMPS (adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphorothioate) provided derivatives with an azole ring directly attached to the purine via an annular azole nitrogen. Electrophilic bromination in the 8-position was followed by nucleophilic substitution with metalated azoles to afford 8-imidazo and 8-triazolo derivatives. The substrates were appropriately protected (Sp)-3′,5′-cyclic N-benzylphosphoramidate. A subsequent carbon disulfide promoted thiation reaction afforded corresponding (Rp)-8-azolo-3′.5′-cAMPS products. The reactions were stereoselective. The products as tri-n-butylammonium salts were soluble in organic solvents and were purified by chromatography. The ammonium salts were converted to sodium salts.
Graphical abstract
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3
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Undheim K. cAMPS derivatives. A minireview over synthetic medicinal chemistry. Bioorg Chem 2019; 91:103152. [PMID: 31419644 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.103152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic nucleosides belonging to the cAMPS system can exert antagonistic or agonistic effects on the cAMP/PKA type 1 inhibitory pathway affecting T-lymphocyte replications. The stereochemistry at the phosphorus atom in the phosphate group is important for the expressed selectivity. The two stereoisomers at the phosphorus atom in the phosphate arise by selective replacements of one of the oxygens pendant from the phosphorus atom by a sulfur atom. Methods for the preparation of cAMPS derivatives as stereochemical mixtures at the phosphorus atom and separation of stereoisomers have been developed into highly stereoselective syntheses. Methods for halogenation in the purine 8-position afford corresponding halides. Heteronucleophilic substitution of the halides afford corresponding amines, ethers or sulfides. Transition metal catalysis for carbylation of the 8-halides affords simple and efficient routes for the preparation of 8-aryl, 8-hetaryl or 8-alkyl cAMPS derivatives. Preparations of prodrugs for improved cell membrane penetration are described. The prodrugs are S-alkylated derivatives which are constructed for selective cleavage of the SP bond by an esterase to regenerate the bioactive cAMPS species at the site of the desired action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kjell Undheim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, N-0315 Oslo, Norway.
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4
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Grassi ES, Dicitore A, Negri I, Borghi MO, Vitale G, Persani L. 8-Cl-cAMP and PKA I-selective cAMP analogs effectively inhibit undifferentiated thyroid cancer cell growth. Endocrine 2017; 56:388-398. [PMID: 27460006 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-016-1057-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The main purpose of our work was to evaluate the effects of different cyclic adenosine monophosphate analogs on thyroid cancer-derived cell lines. In particular we studied 8-chloroadenosine-3',5'-cyclic monophosphate, the most powerful cyclic adenosine monophosphate analog, and the protein kinase A I-selective combination of 8-hexylaminoadenosine-3',5'cyclic monophosphate and 8-piperidinoadenosine-3',5'-cyclic monophosphate. The cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A pathway plays a fundamental role in the regulation of thyroid cells growth. Site-selective cyclic adenosine monophosphate analogs are a class of cyclic adenosine monophosphate-derivate molecules that has been synthesized to modulate protein kinase A activity. Although the cyclic adenosine monophosphate/protein kinase A pathway plays a fundamental role in the regulation of thyroid cells proliferation, there are currently no studies exploring the role of cyclic adenosine monophosphate analogs in thyroid cancer. We evaluated the effects on cell proliferation, apoptosis activation and alterations of different intracellular pathways using 3-(4,5-dimetylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, flow cytofluorimetry, western blotting, and kinase inhibitors. Our results show that both compounds have antiproliferative potential. Both treatments were able to modify protein kinase A RI/RII ratio, thus negatively influencing cancer cells growth. Moreover, the two treatments differentially modulated various signaling pathways that regulate cell proliferation and apoptosis. Both treatments demonstrated interesting characteristics that prompt further studies aiming to understand the intimate interaction between different intracellular pathways and possibly develop novel anticancer therapies for undifferentiated thyroid cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Stellaria Grassi
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health (DISCCO), University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandra Dicitore
- Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Via Zucchi 18, Cusano Milanino, 20095, Milan, Italy
| | - Irene Negri
- Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Via Zucchi 18, Cusano Milanino, 20095, Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Orietta Borghi
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health (DISCCO), University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Vitale
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health (DISCCO), University of Milan, Milan, Italy
- Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Via Zucchi 18, Cusano Milanino, 20095, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Persani
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health (DISCCO), University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
- Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Research, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Via Zucchi 18, Cusano Milanino, 20095, Milan, Italy.
- Division of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Istituto Auxologico Italiano IRCCS, Milan, Italy.
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5
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Xiao LY, Kan WM. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) confers drug resistance against DNA damaging agents via PKAIA in CML cells. Eur J Pharmacol 2016; 794:201-208. [PMID: 27894809 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) regulates many vital functions such as metabolism, proliferation, differentiation and death. Depending on cell types and stimulators, cAMP could either promote or attenuate cell death. cAMP signal can be transduced by protein kinase A (PKA) and/or exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC). In CML cells, cAMP may suppress their proliferation and enhance their differentiation. However, the role of cAMP on DNA damaging agent toxicity and the mechanism involved has not been studied. In this study, we studied the effect of cAMP on the sensitivity of CML cells to DNA damaging agents. We observed that forskolin (FSK) and dibutyryl-cAMP (DBcAMP) decreased cisplatin and etoposide-induced cell death in K562 cells. Moreover, PKA activator prevented K562 cells from DNA damaging agent-induced cell death while EPAC activator had no effect. Furthermore, we found that the PKA subtype, PKAIA, was involved in cAMP-attenuated resistance in K562 cells. Taken together, our results suggest that increased cAMP level confers CML cells to acquire a novel mechanism against DNA damaging agent toxicity via PKAIA. Thus, PKAIA inhibitor may be helpful in overcoming the resistance to DNA damaging agents in CML cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling-Yi Xiao
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Wai-Ming Kan
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan; Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan.
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6
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Bernusso VA, Machado-Neto JA, Pericole FV, Vieira KP, Duarte AS, Traina F, Hansen MD, Olalla Saad ST, Barcellos KS. Imatinib restores VASP activity and its interaction with Zyxin in BCR–ABL leukemic cells. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2015; 1853:388-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2014.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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7
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Loss of Prkar1a leads to Bcl-2 family protein induction and cachexia in mice. Cell Death Differ 2014; 21:1815-24. [PMID: 25012505 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2014.98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Revised: 06/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss of function mutations in the Prkar1a gene are the cause of most cases of Carney complex disorder. Defects in Prkar1a are thought to cause hyper-activation of PKA signalling, which drives neoplastic transformation, and Prkar1a is therefore considered to be a tumour suppressor. Here we show that loss of Prkar1a in genetically modified mice caused transcriptional activation of several proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members and thereby caused cell death. Interestingly, combined loss of Bim and Prkar1a increased colony formation of fibroblasts in culture and promoted their growth as tumours in immune-deficient mice. Apart from inducing apoptosis, systemic deletion of Prkar1a caused cachexia with muscle loss, macrophage activation and increased lipolysis as well as serum triglyceride levels. Loss of single allele of Prkar1a did not enhance tumour development in a skin cancer model, but surprisingly, when combined with the loss of Bim, caused a significant delay in tumorigenesis and this was associated with upregulation of other BH3-only proteins, PUMA and NOXA. These results show that loss of Prkar1a can only promote tumorigenesis when Prkar1a-mediated apoptosis is somehow countered.
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8
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Guo Y, Wilderman A, Zhang L, Taylor SS, Insel PA. Quantitative proteomics analysis of the cAMP/protein kinase A signaling pathway. Biochemistry 2012; 51:9323-32. [PMID: 23110364 PMCID: PMC3503394 DOI: 10.1021/bi301282k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
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To define the proteins whose expression is regulated
by cAMP and
protein kinase A (PKA), we used a quantitative proteomics approach
in studies of wild-type (WT) and kin- (PKA-null) S49 murine T lymphoma
cells. We also compared the impact of endogenous increases in the
level of cAMP [by forskolin (Fsk) and the phosphodiesterase inhibitor
isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX)] or by a cAMP analogue (8-CPT-cAMP).
We identified 1056 proteins in WT and kin- S49 cells and found that
8-CPT-cAMP and Fsk with IBMX produced differences in protein expression.
WT S49 cells had a correlation coefficient of 0.41 between DNA microarray
data and the proteomics analysis in cells incubated with 8-CPT-cAMP
for 24 h and a correlation coefficient of 0.42 between the DNA microarray
data obtained at 6 h and the changes in protein expression after incubation
with 8-CPT-cAMP for 24 h. Glutathione reductase (Gsr) had a higher
level of basal expression in kin- S49 cells than in WT cells. Consistent
with this finding, kin- cells are less sensitive to cell killing and
generation of malondialdehyde than are WT cells incubated with H2O2. Cyclic AMP acting via PKA thus has a broad
impact on protein expression in mammalian cells, including in the
regulation of Gsr and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurong Guo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0654, United States
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9
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Magocsi M, Vizi ES, Selmeczy Z, Brózik A, Szelenyi J. Multiple G-protein-coupling specificity of beta-adrenoceptor in macrophages. Immunology 2007; 122:503-13. [PMID: 17949419 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02658.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Adrenergic signalling of the immune system is one of the important modulator pathways of the inflammatory immune response realized via G protein-mediated pathways. The resulted signal depends on the type of the receptor-coupled G-protein (GPCR) that, according to the classical paradigm in the case of beta-adrenergic receptor (beta-AR), is Gs-type. Recently, alternate and/or multiple G protein coupling specificity of GPCRs have been demonstrated including a switch from Gs to Gi binding. The possibility of a Gs/Gi switch and its role in the immune response of macrophages has not been investigated yet. In this study, we demonstrate that beta-adrenergic stimulation itself is able to induce a transient mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation in murine peritoneal macrophages in a pertussis toxin-sensitive manner, suggesting that the Gs/Gi switch also occurs in the immune system. Although this process is very rapid, it can influence different signalling pathways and can reprogramme effector functions suggesting that sympathetic modulation of the defence mechanism of the innate immune system has an additional, Gs/Gi switch-dependent component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Magocsi
- Institute of Haematology and Immunology, National Medical Centre, Budapest, Hungary.
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10
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Wang H, Li M, Lin W, Wang W, Zhang Z, Rayburn ER, Lu J, Chen D, Yue X, Shen F, Jiang F, He J, Wei W, Zeng X, Zhang R. Extracellular activity of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase as a biomarker for human cancer detection: distribution characteristics in a normal population and cancer patients. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 16:789-95. [PMID: 17416772 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-06-0367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The overexpression of cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKA) has been reported in patients with cancer, and PKA inhibitors have been tested in clinical trials as a novel cancer therapy. The present study was designed to characterize the population distribution of extracellular activity of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (ECPKA) and its potential value as a biomarker for cancer detection and monitoring of cancer therapy. The population distribution of ECPKA activity was determined in serum samples from a Chinese population consisting of a total of 603 subjects (374 normal healthy volunteers and 229 cancer patients). The serum ECPKA was determined by a validated sensitive radioassay, and its diagnostic values (including positive and negative predictive values) were analyzed. The majority of normal subjects (>70%) have undetectable or very low levels of serum ECPKA. In contrast, the majority of cancer patients (>85%) have high levels of ECPKA. The mean ECPKA activity in the sera of cancer patients was 10.98 units/mL, 5-fold higher than that of the healthy controls (2.15 units/mL; P < 0.001). In both normal subjects and cancer patients, gender and age had no significant influence on the serum ECPKA. Among factors considered, logistic analysis revealed that the disease (cancer) is the only factor contributing to the elevation of ECPKA activity in cancer patients. In conclusion, ECPKA may function as a cancer marker for various human cancers and can be used in cancer detection and for monitoring response to therapy with other screening or diagnostic techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, VH 113, Box 600, 1670 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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11
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Michl P, Knobel B, Downward J. CUTL1 is phosphorylated by protein kinase A, modulating its effects on cell proliferation and motility. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:15138-44. [PMID: 16574653 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m600908200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
CUTL1, also known as CDP (CCAAT Displacement Protein), Cut, or Cux-1, is a homeodomain transcription factor known to play an essential role in development and cell cycle progression. Previously, we identified CUTL1 as modulator of cell motility and invasiveness. Here we report that protein kinase A (PKA), known to inhibit tumor progression in various tumor types, directly phosphorylates CUTL1 at serine 1215 in NIH3T3 fibroblasts. The PKA-induced phosphorylation results in decreased DNA binding affinity of CUTL1 and diminished CUTL1-mediated cell cycle progression and cell motility. Furthermore, the expression of several CUTL1 target genes involved in proliferation and migration, such as DNA polymerase A and DKK2, was modulated by PKA-induced phosphorylation. These data identify CUTL1 as a novel target of PKA through which this protein kinase can modulate tumor cell motility and tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Michl
- Signal Transduction Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, 44 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PX, United Kingdom
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Kirschner LS, Kusewitt DF, Matyakhina L, Towns WH, Carney JA, Westphal H, Stratakis CA. A mouse model for the Carney complex tumor syndrome develops neoplasia in cyclic AMP-responsive tissues. Cancer Res 2005; 65:4506-14. [PMID: 15930266 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-05-0580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Carney complex is an autosomal dominant neoplasia syndrome characterized by spotty skin pigmentation, myxomatosis, endocrine tumors, and schwannomas. This condition may be caused by inactivating mutations in PRKAR1A, the gene encoding the type 1A regulatory subunit of protein kinase A. To better understand the mechanism by which PRKAR1A mutations cause disease, we have developed conventional and conditional null alleles for Prkar1a in the mouse. Prkar1a(+/-) mice developed nonpigmented schwannomas and fibro-osseous bone lesions beginning at approximately 6 months of age. Although genotype-specific cardiac and adrenal lesions were not seen, benign and malignant thyroid neoplasias were observed in older mice. This spectrum of tumors overlaps that seen in Carney complex patients, confirming the validity of this mouse model. Genetic analysis indicated that allelic loss occurred in a subset of tumor cells, suggesting that complete loss of Prkar1a plays a key role in tumorigenesis. Similarly, tissue-specific ablation of Prkar1a from a subset of facial neural crest cells caused the formation of schwannomas with divergent differentiation. These observations confirm the identity of PRKAR1A as a tumor suppressor gene with specific importance to cyclic AMP-responsive tissues and suggest that these mice may be valuable tools not only for understanding endocrine tumorigenesis but also for understanding inherited predispositions for schwannoma formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence S Kirschner
- Human Cancer Genetics Program, and Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.
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Zambon AC, Zhang L, Minovitsky S, Kanter JR, Prabhakar S, Salomonis N, Vranizan K, Dubchak I, Conklin BR, Insel PA. Gene expression patterns define key transcriptional events in cell-cycle regulation by cAMP and protein kinase A. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:8561-6. [PMID: 15939874 PMCID: PMC1150853 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0503363102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Although a substantial number of hormones and drugs increase cellular cAMP levels, the global impact of cAMP and its major effector mechanism, protein kinase A (PKA), on gene expression is not known. Here we show that treatment of murine wild-type S49 lymphoma cells for 24 h with 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-cAMP (8-CPT-cAMP), a PKA-selective cAMP analog, alters the expression of approximately 4,500 of approximately 13,600 unique genes. By contrast, gene expression was unaltered in Kin- S49 cells (that lack PKA) incubated with 8-CPT-cAMP. Changes in mRNA and protein expression of several cell-cycle regulators accompanied cAMP-induced G1-phase cell-cycle arrest of wild-type S49 cells. Within 2 h, 8-CPT-cAMP altered expression of 152 genes that contain evolutionarily conserved cAMP-response elements within 5 kb of transcriptional start sites, including the circadian clock gene Per1. Thus, cAMP through its activation of PKA produces extensive transcriptional regulation in eukaryotic cells. These transcriptional networks include a primary group of cAMP-response element-containing genes and secondary networks that include the circadian clock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C Zambon
- Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94141, USA
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