Identification of 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors positively coupled to adenylyl cyclase in rat cultured astrocytes

5-HT6 receptor neutral antagonists protect astrocytes: A lesson from 2-phenylpyrrole derivatives

The serotonin type 6 receptor (5-HT6R) displays a strong constitutive activity, suggesting it participates largely in the physiological and pathological processes controlled by the receptor. The active states of 5-HT6R engage particular signal transduction pathways that lead to different biological responses. In this study, we present the development of 5-HT6R neutral antagonists at Gs signaling built upon the 2-phenylpyrrole scaffold. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we outline the relationship between the exposure of the basic center of the molecules and their ability to target the agonist-activated state of the receptor. Our study identifies compound 30 as a potent and selective neutral antagonist at 5-HT6R-operated Gs signaling. Furthermore, we demonstrate the cytoprotective effects of 30 and structurally diverse 5-HT6R neutral antagonists at Gs signaling in C8-D1A cells and human astrocytes exposed to rotenone. This effect is not observed for 5-HT6R agonists or inverse agonists. In light of these findings, we propose compound 30 as a valuable molecular probe to study the biological effects associated with the agonist-activated state of 5-HT6R and provide insight into the glioprotective properties of 5-HT6R neutral antagonists at Gs signaling.

Targeting the brain 5-HT7 receptor to prevent hypomyelination in a rodent model of perinatal white matter injuries

Approximately 15 million babies are born prematurely every year and many will face lifetime motor and/or cognitive deficits. Children born prematurely are at higher risk of developing perinatal brain lesions, especially white matter injuries (WMI). Evidence in humans and rodents demonstrates that systemic inflammation-induced neuroinflammation, including microglial and astrocyte reactivity, is the prominent processes of WMI associated with preterm birth. Thus, a new challenge in the field of perinatal brain injuries is to develop new neuroprotective strategies to target neuroinflammation to prevent WMI. Serotonin (5-HT) and its receptors play an important role in inflammation, and emerging evidence indicates that 5-HT may regulate brain inflammation by the modulation of microglial reactivity and astrocyte functions. The present study is based on a mouse model of WMI induced by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of IL-1β during the first 5 days of life. In this model, certain key lesions of preterm brain injuries can be summarized by (i) systemic inflammation, (ii) pro-inflammatory microglial and astrocyte activation, and (iii) inhibition of oligodendrocyte maturation, leading to hypomyelination. We demonstrate that Htr7 mRNA (coding for the HTR7/5-HT7 receptor) is significantly overexpressed in the anterior cortex of IL-1β-exposed animals, suggesting it as a potential therapeutic target. LP-211 is a specific high-affinity HTR7 agonist that crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB). When co-injected with IL-1β, LP-211 treatment prevented glial reactivity, the down-regulation of myelin-associated proteins, and the apparition of anxiety-like phenotypes. Thus, HTR7 may represent an innovative therapeutic target to protect the developing brain from preterm brain injuries.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of 5-HT6 receptor ciliary localization during mouse brain development

The serotonin 5-HT₆ receptor (5-HT₆R) is a promising target to improve cognitive symptoms of psychiatric diseases of neurodevelopmental origin, such as autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia. However, its expression and localization at different stages of brain development remain largely unknown, due to the lack of specific antibodies to detect endogenous 5-HT₆R. Here, we used transgenic mice expressing a GFP-tagged 5-HT₆R under the control of its endogenous promoter (Knock-in) as well as embryonic stem cells expressing the GFP-tagged receptor to extensively characterize its expression at cellular and subcellular levels during development. We show that the receptor is already expressed at E13.5 in the cortex, the striatum, the ventricular zone, and to a lesser extent the subventricular zone. In adulthood, it is preferentially found in projection neurons of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, in striatal medium-sized spiny neurons, as well as in a large proportion of astrocytes, while it is expressed in a minor population of interneurons. Whereas the receptor is almost exclusively detected in the primary cilia of neurons at embryonic and adult stages and in differentiated stem cells, it is located in the somatodendritic compartment of neurons from some brain regions at the neonatal stage and in the soma of undifferentiated stem cells. Finally, knocking-out the receptor induces a shortening of the primary cilium, suggesting that it plays a role in its function. This study provides the first global picture of 5-HT₆R expression pattern in the mouse brain at different developmental stages. It reveals dynamic changes in receptor localization in neurons at the neonatal stage, which might underlie its key role in neuronal differentiation and psychiatric disorders of neurodevelopmental origin.

Astroglial Serotonin Receptors as the Central Target of Classic Antidepressants

Major depressive disorder (MDD) presents multiple clinical phenotypes and has complex underlying pathological mechanisms. Existing theories cannot completely explain the pathophysiological mechanism(s) of MDD, while the pharmacology of current antidepressants is far from being fully understood. Astrocytes, the homeostatic and defensive cells of the central nervous system, contribute to shaping behaviors, and regulating mood and emotions. A detailed introduction on the role of astrocytes in depressive disorders is thus required, to which this chapter is dedicated. We also focus on the interactions between classic antidepressants and serotonin receptors, overview the role of astrocytes in the pharmacological mechanisms of various antidepressants, and present astrocytes as targets for the treatment of bipolar disorder. We provide a foundation of knowledge on the role of astrocytes in depressive disorders and astroglial 5-HT_2B receptors as targets for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in vivo and in vitro.

Primary Cilia in Glial Cells: An Oasis in the Journey to Overcoming Neurodegenerative Diseases

Many neurodegenerative diseases have been associated with defects in primary cilia, which are cellular organelles involved in diverse cellular processes and homeostasis. Several types of glial cells in both the central and peripheral nervous systems not only support the development and function of neurons but also play significant roles in the mechanisms of neurological disease. Nevertheless, most studies have focused on investigating the role of primary cilia in neurons. Accordingly, the interest of recent studies has expanded to elucidate the role of primary cilia in glial cells. Correspondingly, several reports have added to the growing evidence that most glial cells have primary cilia and that impairment of cilia leads to neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we aimed to understand the regulatory mechanisms of cilia formation and the disease-related functions of cilia, which are common or specific to each glial cell. Moreover, we have paid close attention to the signal transduction and pathological mechanisms mediated by glia cilia in representative neurodegenerative diseases. Finally, we expect that this field of research will clarify the mechanisms involved in the formation and function of glial cilia to provide novel insights and ideas for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases in the future.

The Association Between Antidepressant Effect of SSRIs and Astrocytes: Conceptual Overview and Meta-analysis of the Literature

Major depressive disorders (MDD) a worldwide psychiatric disease, is yet to be adequately controlled by therapies; while the mechanisms of action of antidepressants are yet to be fully characterised. In the last two decades, an increasing number of studies have demonstrated the role of astrocytes in the pathophysiology and therapy of MDD. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most widely used antidepressants. It is generally acknowledged that SSRIs increase serotonin levels in the central nervous system by inhibiting serotonin transporters, although the SSRIs action is not ideal. The SSRIs antidepressant effect develops with considerable delay; their efficacy is low and frequent relapses are common. Neither cellular nor molecular pharmacological mechanisms of SSRIs are fully characterised; in particular their action on astrocytes remain underappreciated. In this paper we overview potential therapeutic mechanisms of SSRIs associated with astroglia and report the results of meta-analysis of studies dedicated to MDD, SSRIs and astrocytes. In particular, we argue that fluoxetine, the representative SSRI, improves depressive-like behaviours in animals treated with chronic mild stress and reverses depression-associated decrease in astrocytic glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression. In addition, fluoxetine upregulates astrocytic mRNA expression of 5-hydroxytriptamin/serotonin_2B receptors (5-HT_2BR). In summary, we infer that SSRIs exert their anti-depressant effect by regulating several molecular and signalling pathways in astrocytes.

Serotonergic neurons in the treatment of mood disorders: The dialogue with astrocytes

Astrocytes were traditionally regarded as cells important to neuronal activity, providing both metabolic and structural supports. Recent evidence suggests that they may also play a crucial role in the control of higher brain functions. In keeping with this hypothesis, it is now well accepted that astrocytes contribute to stress but also react to antidepressant drugs as they express serotonergic transporters and receptors. However, the downstream mechanisms leading to the fine-tuned regulation of mood are still unknown. This chapter pays attention to the role of astrocytes in the regulation of emotional behavior and related serotonergic neurotransmission. In particular, it gives a current state of the clinical and preclinical evidence showing that astrocytes respond to environmental conditions and antidepressant drugs through the release of gliotransmitters and neurotrophic factors which in turn, influence serotonergic tone in discrete brain areas. This state-of-the-art review aims at demonstrating the remarkable potential for novel therapeutic antidepressant strategies targeting these glial cells.

Imidazopyridine-Based 5-HT6 Receptor Neutral Antagonists: Impact of N1-Benzyl and N1-Phenylsulfonyl Fragments on Different Receptor Conformational States

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) exist in an equilibrium of multiple conformational states, including different active states, which depend on the nature of the bound ligand. In consequence, different conformational states can initiate specific signal transduction pathways. The study identified compound 7e, which acts as a potent 5-hydroxytryptamine type 6 receptor (5-HT₆R) neutral antagonist at Gs and does not impact neurite growth (process controlled by Cdk5). MD simulations highlighted receptor conformational changes for 7e and inverse agonist PZ-1444. In cell-based assays, neutral antagonists of the 5-HT₆R (7e and CPPQ), but not inverse agonists (SB-258585, intepirdine, PZ-1444), displayed glioprotective properties against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced and doxorubicin-induced cytotoxicity. These suggest that targeting the activated conformational state of the 5-HT₆R with neutral antagonists implicates the protecting properties of astrocytes. Additionally, 7e prevented scopolamine-induced learning deficits in the novel object recognition test in rats. We propose 7e as a probe for further understanding of the functional outcomes of different states of the 5-HT₆R.

Disruption to the 5-HT7 Receptor Following Hypoxia-Ischemia in the Immature Rodent Brain

It has become increasingly evident the serotonergic (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) system is an important central neuronal network disrupted following neonatal hypoxic-ischemic (HI) insults. Serotonin acts via a variety of receptor subtypes that are differentially associated with behavioural and cognitive mechanisms. The 5-HT₇ receptor is purported to play a key role in epilepsy, anxiety, learning and memory and neuropsychiatric disorders. Furthermore, the 5-HT₇ receptor is highly localized in brain regions damaged following neonatal HI insults. Utilising our well-established neonatal HI model in the postnatal day 3 (P3) rat pup we demonstrated a significant decrease in levels of the 5-HT₇ protein in the frontal cortex, thalamus and brainstem one week after insult. We also observed a relative decrease in both the cytosolic and membrane fractions of 5-HT₇. The 5-HT₇ receptor was detected on neurons throughout the cortex and thalamus, and 5-HT cell bodies in the brainstem. However we found no evidence of 5-HT₇ co-localisation on microglia or astrocytes. Moreover, minocycline treatment did not significantly prevent the HI-induced reductions in 5-HT₇. In conclusion, neonatal HI injury caused significant disruption to 5-HT₇ receptors in the forebrain and brainstem. Yet the use of minocycline to inhibit activated microglia, did not prevent the HI-induced changes in 5-HT₇ expression.

Physiology of Astroglia

Astrocytes are neural cells of ectodermal, neuroepithelial origin that provide for homeostasis and defense of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are highly heterogeneous in morphological appearance; they express a multitude of receptors, channels, and membrane transporters. This complement underlies their remarkable adaptive plasticity that defines the functional maintenance of the CNS in development and aging. Astrocytes are tightly integrated into neural networks and act within the context of neural tissue; astrocytes control homeostasis of the CNS at all levels of organization from molecular to the whole organ.

Physiology of Astroglia

Astrocytes are neural cells of ectodermal, neuroepithelial origin that provide for homeostasis and defense of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are highly heterogeneous in morphological appearance; they express a multitude of receptors, channels, and membrane transporters. This complement underlies their remarkable adaptive plasticity that defines the functional maintenance of the CNS in development and aging. Astrocytes are tightly integrated into neural networks and act within the context of neural tissue; astrocytes control homeostasis of the CNS at all levels of organization from molecular to the whole organ.

Activation of 5-hyrdoxytryptamine 7 receptors within the rat nucleus tractus solitarii modulates synaptic properties

Serotonin (5-HT) is a potent neuromodulator with multiple receptor types within the cardiorespiratory system, including the nucleus tractus solitarii (nTS)--the central termination site of visceral afferent fibers. The 5-HT7 receptor facilitates cardiorespiratory reflexes through its action in the brainstem and likely in the nTS. However, the mechanism and site of action for these effects is not clear. In this study, we examined the expression and function of 5-HT7 receptors in the nTS of Sprague-Dawley rats. 5-HT7 receptor mRNA and protein were identified across the rostrocaudal extent of the nTS. To determine 5-HT7 receptor function, we examined nTS synaptic properties following 5-HT7 receptor activation in monosynaptic nTS neurons in the in vitro brainstem slice preparation. Application of 5-HT7 receptor agonists altered tractus solitarii evoked and spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents which were attenuated with a selective 5-HT7 receptor antagonist. 5-HT7 receptor-mediated changes in excitatory postsynaptic currents were also altered by block of 5-HT1A and GABAA receptors. Interestingly, 5-HT7 receptor activation also reduced the amplitude but not frequency of GABAA-mediated inhibitory currents. Together these results indicate a complex role for 5-HT7 receptors in the nTS that mediate its diverse effects on cardiorespiratory parameters.

S100B interacts with the serotonin 5-HT7 receptor to regulate a depressive-like behavior

The serotonin 5-HT7 receptor (5-HT7) is an emerging target for psychiatric pharmacotherapy. Recent observations in rodent models and humans suggest that its blockade mediates antidepressant efficacy. In the present study, we identify the Ca(2+)-binding protein S100B as an interacting partner of 5-HT7 and show that S100B negatively regulates inducible cyclic AMP (cAMP) accumulation in transfected HeLa cells and mouse cortical astrocytes. Overexpression of S100B causes brain region-specific dysregulation of the cAMP pathway in vivo, such that concentrations of cAMP in the frontal cortex are higher in S100B transgenic female mice compared to wild-types. Finally, S100B transgenic female mice show depressive-like behavior in the forced swim test (FST) and pharmacological blockade of 5-HT7 with SB269970 normalizes FST behavior. Taken together, our results show that S100B affects behavioral despair in female mice through functional interaction with the 5-HT7 receptor. Furthermore, we identify S100B as a cAMP-regulatory protein in cultured astrocytes and the murine frontal cortex. Future experiments will clarify whether there is a direct link between the 5-HT7-associated and cAMP-regulatory actions of S100B.

Differential responses to acute administration of a new 5-HT7-R agonist as a function of adolescent pre-treatment: phMRI and immuno-histochemical study

LP-211 is a new, selective agonist of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptor 7 (5-HT7-R), which is part of a neuro-transmission system with a proposed role in neural plasticity and in mood, cognitive and sleep regulation. Adolescent subchronic LP-211 treatment produces some persisting changes in rats' forebrain structural and functional parameters. Here, using pharmacological MRI (phMRI), we investigated the effect of acute administration with LP-211 (10 mg/kg i.p.), or vehicle, to adult rats previously exposed to the same drug (0.25 mg/kg/day for 5 days), or vehicle, during adolescence (44–48 post-natal days); histology and immuno-histochemistry were performed ex vivo to evaluate neuro-anatomical and physiological long-term adaptation to pharmacological pre-treatment. The phMRI signal reveals forebrain areas (i.e., hippocampus, orbital prefrontal cortex), activated in response to LP-211 challenge independently of adolescent pre-treatment. In septum and nucleus accumbens, sensitized activation was found in adolescent pre-treated rats but not in vehicle-exposed controls. Immuno-histochemical analyses showed marked differences in septum as long-term consequence of the adolescent pre-treatment: increased level of 5-HT7-R, increased number of 5-HT7-R positive cells, and enhanced astrocyte activation. For nucleus accumbens, immuno-histochemical analyses did not reveal any difference between adolescent pre-treated rats and vehicle-exposed controls. In conclusion, subchronic LP-211 administration during adolescence is able to induce persistent physiological changes in the septal 5-HT7-R expression and astrocyte response that can still be observed in adulthood. Data shed new insights into roles of 5-HT7-R for normal and pathologic behavioral regulations.

HCN channels contribute to serotonergic modulation of ventral surface chemosensitive neurons and respiratory activity

Chemosensitive neurons in the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN) provide a CO2/H(+)-dependent drive to breathe and function as an integration center for the respiratory network, including serotonergic raphe neurons. We recently showed that serotonergic modulation of RTN chemoreceptors involved inhibition of KCNQ channels and activation of an unknown inward current. Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic-nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are the molecular correlate of the hyperpolarization-activated inward current (Ih) and have a high propensity for modulation by serotonin. To investigate whether HCN channels contribute to basal activity and serotonergic modulation of RTN chemoreceptors, we characterize resting activity and the effects of serotonin on RTN chemoreceptors in vitro and on respiratory activity of anesthetized rats in the presence or absence of blockers of KCNQ (XE991) and/or HCN (ZD7288, Cs(+)) channels. We found in vivo that bilateral RTN injections of ZD7288 increased respiratory activity and in vitro HCN channel blockade increased activity of RTN chemoreceptors under control conditions, but this was blunted by KCNQ channel inhibition. Furthermore, in vivo unilateral RTN injection of XE991 plus ZD7288 eliminated the serotonin response, and in vitro serotonin sensitivity was eliminated by application of XE991 and ZD7288 or SQ22536 (adenylate cyclase blocker). Serotonin-mediated activation of RTN chemoreceptors was blocked by a 5-HT7-receptor blocker and mimicked by a 5-HT7-receptor agonist. In addition, serotonin caused a depolarizing shift in the voltage-dependent activation of Ih. These results suggest that HCN channels contribute to resting chemoreceptor activity and that serotonin activates RTN chemoreceptors and breathing in part by a 5-HT7 receptor-dependent mechanism and downstream activation of Ih.

Chronic effects of clozapine administration on insulin resistance in rats: evidence for adverse metabolic effects

Chronic treatment with the atypical antipsychotics clozapine has been associated with an increased risk for deterioration of glucose homeostasis, leading to hyperglycemia and insulin resistance diabetes. The present study mainly aimed to investigate possible mechanisms underlying clozapine-induced hyperglycemia. Male Wistar albino rats were randomly divided into two groups (each consists of 12 rats). The first group received clozapine orally at a dose of 10mg/kg body weight daily for 6 weeks, while the other group received the drug vehicle only and served as the control group. At the end of the six weeks, hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance, as indicated by Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), were observed in the clozapine group as compared with the control group. This disturbance in glucose regulation was associated with non-significant changes in body weight, serum cortisol level, and hepatic glycogen content. The Clozapine group showed a significant increase in hepatic phosphorylase activity and in the gene expression level of hepatic glucose-6-phosphatse (G6Pase) enzymes compared to the control group. It can be concluded that clozapine-induced hyperglycemia and insulin resistance occur in a manner mostly independent of weight gain, and may be attributed to an increase in hepatic phosphorylase activity and increased expression level of G6Pase.

Antidepressants act directly on astrocytes: evidences and functional consequences

Post-mortem histopathological studies report on reduced glial cell numbers in various frontolimbic areas of depressed patients implying that glial loss together with abnormal functioning could contribute to the pathophysiology of mood disorders. Astrocytes are regarded as the most abundant cell type in the brain and known for their housekeeping functions, but as recent developments suggest, they are also dynamic regulators of synaptogenesis, synaptic strength and stability and they control adult hippocampal neurogenesis. The primary aim of this review was to summarize the abundant experimental evidences demonstrating that antidepressant therapies have profound effect on astrocytes. Antidepressants modify astroglial physiology, morphology and by affecting gliogenesis they probably even regulate glial cell numbers. Antidepressants affect intracellular signaling pathways and gene expression of astrocytes, as well as the expression of receptors and the release of various trophic factors. We also assess the potential functional consequences of these changes on glutamate and glucose homeostasis and on synaptic communication between the neurons. We propose here a hypothesis that antidepressant treatment not only affects neurons, but also activates astrocytes, triggering them to carry out specific functions that result in the reactivation of cortical plasticity and can lead to the readjustment of abnormal neuronal networks. We argue here that these astrocyte specific changes are likely to contribute to the therapeutic effectiveness of the currently available antidepressant treatments and the better understanding of these cellular and molecular processes could help us to identify novel targets for the development of antidepressant drugs.

5-Hydroxytryptamine type 7 receptor neuroprotection against NMDA-induced excitotoxicity is PDGFβ receptor dependent

The serotonin (5-HT) type 7 receptor is expressed throughout the CNS including the hippocampus. Long-term (2-24 h) activation of 5-HT7 receptors regulates growth factor receptor expression, including the expression of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) β receptors. Direct activation of PDGFβ receptors in primary hippocampal and cortical neurons inhibits NMDA receptor activity and attenuates NMDA receptor-induced neurotoxicity. Our objective was to investigate whether the 5-HT7 receptor-induced increase in PDGFβ receptor expression would be similarly neuroprotective. We demonstrate that 5-HT7 receptor agonist treatment in primary hippocampal neurons also increases the expression of phospholipase C (PLC) γ, a downstream effector of PDGFβ receptors associated with the inhibition of NMDA receptor activity. To determine if the up-regulation of PDGFβ receptors is neuroprotective, primary hippocampal neurons were incubated with the 5-HT7 receptor agonist, LP 12, for 24 h. Indeed, LP 12 treatment prevented NMDA-induced neurotoxicity and this effect was dependent on PDGFβ receptor kinase activity. Treatment of primary neurons with LP 12 also differentially altered NMDA receptor subunit expression, reducing the expression of NR1 and NR2B, but not NR2A. These findings demonstrate the potential for providing growth factor receptor-dependent neuroprotective effects using small-molecule ligands of G protein-coupled receptors.

Serotonin-induced brain glycogenolysis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

In this study, we evaluated the serotonin-mediated control of cerebral glycogen levels in the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of serotonin (5-HT) to normoglycemic trout (time and dose response) decreased glycogen levels in the brain and increased brain glycogen phosphorylase activity (time response). In hypoglycemic fish (that had been fasted for 5 and 10 days), there was a time-dependent decrease in brain glycogen levels; under these conditions, i.c.v. administration of 5-HT also reduced the brain glycogen content in fish that had been fasted for 5 days. In fish with local cerebral hypoglycemia (induced by 2-DG administration), the glycogen levels decreased and, as above, i.c.v. administration of 5-HT also lowered the glycogen content. In hyperglycemic fish, 5-HT did not affect glycogen levels. Administration of receptor agonists 5-HT1A (8-OH-DPAT), 5-HT1B (anpirtoline and CP93129) or 5-HT2 (α-m-5-HT) decreased the brain glycogen levels. This effect was antagonized by the administration of receptor antagonists 5-HT1A (WAY100135 and NAN190), 5-HT1B (NAS181) and 5-HT2B/C (SB206553). Administration of the receptor agonists (±)-DOI (5-HT2A/2C), m-CPP (5-HT2B/2C), BW723C86 (5-HT2B) and WAY 161503 (5-HT2C) led to decreases in the levels of brain glycogen. We found that 5-HT is involved in the modulation of brain glycogen homeostasis in the rainbow trout, causing a glycogenolytic effect when fish are in a normoglycemic or hypoglycemic state, but not when they are in a hyperglycemic state. 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5HT2B and 5-HT2C-like receptors appeared to be involved in the glycogenolytic action of 5-HT, although the effect mediated by 5-HT1A or 5-HT1B was apparently stronger.

5-HT2 ligands in the treatment of anxiety and depression

INTRODUCTION

One third of depressed patients do not respond adequately to conventional antidepressants including the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Therefore, multi-target drugs or augmentation strategies have been developed for the management of SSRIs-resistant patients. In this context, the 5-HT(2) receptor subtypes represent promising targets but their precise roles have yet to be determined.

AREAS COVERED

The aim of this review is to shed some light on the preclinical evidence supporting the use of 5-HT(2A) and/or 5-HT(2C) receptor antagonists such as antipsychotics, as potential effective adjuncts in SSRIs-resistant depression. This review synthesizes the current literature about the behavioral, electrophysiological and neurochemical effects of 5-HT(2) receptors ligands on the monoaminergic systems but also on adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

EXPERT OPINION

Although studies support the hypothesis that the inactivation of 5-HT(2A) and/or 5-HT(2C) receptors might be of interest to reinforce different facets of the therapeutic activity of SSRIs, this pharmacological strategy remains debatable notably because of the lack of chronic data in relevant animal models. Conversely, emerging evidence suggests that the activation of 5-HT(2B) receptor is required for antidepressant-like activity, opening the way to new therapeutic approaches. However, the potential risks related to the enhancement of monoaminergic neurotransmissions could represent a major concern.

Secondary mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia depend on descending facilitation mediated by spinal 5-HT₄, 5-HT₆ and 5-HT₇ receptors

In the present study we determined the role of spinal 5-hydroxytriptamine (5-HT) and 5-HT(4/6/7) receptors in the long-term secondary mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia induced by formalin in the rat. Formalin produced acute nociceptive behaviors (flinching and licking/lifting) followed by long-term secondary mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia in both paws. In addition, formalin increased the tissue content of 5-HT in the ipsilateral, but not contralateral, dorsal part of the spinal cord compared to control animals. Intrathecal (i.t.) administration of 5,7-dihydroxytriptamine (5,7-DHT), a serotonergic neurotoxin, diminished tissue 5-HT content in the ipsilateral and contralateral dorsal parts of the spinal cord. Accordingly, i.t. 5,7-DHT prevented formalin-induced secondary allodynia and hyperalgesia in both paws. I.t. pre-treatment (-10 min) with ML-10302 (5-HT(4) agonist), EMD-386088 (5-HT(6) agonist) and LP-12 (5-HT(7) agonist) significantly increased secondary mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia in both paws. In contrast, i.t. pre-treatment (-20 min) with GR-125487 (5-HT(4) antagonist), SB-258585 (5-HT(6) antagonist) and SB-269970 (5-HT(7) antagonist) significantly prevented formalin-induced long-term effects in both paws. In addition, these antagonists prevented the pro-nociceptive effect of ML-10302, EMD-386088 and LP-12, respectively. The i.t. post-treatment (6 days after formalin injection) with GR-125487, SB-258585 and SB-269970 reversed formalin-induced secondary allodynia and hyperalgesia in both paws. These results suggest that spinal 5-HT, released from the serotonergic projections in response to formalin injection, activates pre- or post-synaptic 5-HT(4/6/7) receptors at the dorsal root ganglion/spinal cord promoting the development and maintenance of secondary allodynia and hyperalgesia.

A new approach for studying GPCR dimers: drug-induced inactivation and reactivation to reveal GPCR dimer function in vitro, in primary culture, and in vivo

GPCRs are a major family of homologous proteins and are key mediators of the effects of numerous endogenous neurotransmitters, hormones, cytokines, therapeutic drugs, and drugs-of-abuse. Despite the enormous amount of research on the pharmacological and biochemical properties of GPCRs, the question as to whether they exist as monomers, dimers, or higher order structures in the body is unanswered. The GPCR dimer field has been dominated by techniques involving recombinant cell lines expressing mutant receptors, often involving the solubilization of the receptors. These techniques cannot be applied in vivo or even to primary cell cultures. This review will focus on a novel approach to exploring the functional properties of homodimers. Studies of the 5-HT(7) and 5-HT(2A) serotonin receptors have revealed that binding of a pseudo-irreversible antagonist ("inactivator") to one of the orthosteric sites of a homodimer abolishes all receptor activity, and subsequent binding of a competitive antagonist to the orthosteric site of the second protomer releases the inactivator, allowing the receptor to return to an active state. This approach demonstrates allosteric crosstalk between protomers of native GPCR homodimers, indicating that GPCRs do exist and function as homodimers in both recombinant cells and rat primary astrocytes. This technique can be applied universally using intact recombinant or primary cells in culture, membrane homogenate preparations and, potentially, in vivo. The data obtained using the 5-HT(7) and 5-HT(2A) receptors are strongly supportive of a GPCR homodimer structure, with little evidence of monomer involvement in the function of these receptors.

Glioblastoma chemotherapy adjunct via potent serotonin receptor-7 inhibition using currently marketed high-affinity antipsychotic medicines

Glioblastoma treatment as now constituted offers increased survival measured in months over untreated patients. Because glioblastomas are active in synthesizing a bewildering variety of growth factors, a systematic approach to inhibiting these is being undertaken as treatment adjunct. The serotonin 7 receptor is commonly overexpressed in glioblastoma. Research documentation showing agonists at serotonin receptor 7 cause increased extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 activation, increased interleukin-6 synthesis, increased signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 activation, increased resistance to apoptosis and other growth enhancing changes in glioblastoma is reviewed in this paper. Because three drugs in wide use to treat thought disorders - paliperidone, pimozide and risperidone - are also potent and well-tolerated inhibitors at serotonin receptor 7, these drugs should be studied for growth factor deprivation in an adjunctive role in glioblastoma treatment.

Risperidone-induced inactivation and clozapine-induced reactivation of rat cortical astrocyte 5-hydroxytryptamine₇ receptors: evidence for in situ G protein-coupled receptor homodimer protomer cross-talk

We have reported previously novel drug-induced inactivation and reactivation of human 5-hydroxytryptamine₇ (5-HT₇) receptors in a recombinant cell line. To explain these novel observations, a homodimer structure displaying protomer-protomer cross-talk was proposed. To determine whether these novel observations and interpretations are due to an artifactual G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) mechanism unique to the recombinant cell line, we explored the properties of r5-HT₇ receptors expressed by cortical astrocytes in primary culture. As in the recombinant cell line, risperidone, 9-OH-risperidone, methiothepin, and bromocriptine were found to potently inactivate r5-HT₇ receptors. As in the recombinant cell line, exposure of risperidone-inactivated astrocyte r5-HT₇ receptors to competitive antagonists resulted in the reactivation of r5-HT₇ receptors. The potencies of the reactivating drugs closely correlated with their affinities for h5-HT₇ receptors. These results indicate the novel inactivating and reactivating property of drugs is not due to an artifact of the recombinant cell line expressing h5-HT₇ receptors but is an intrinsic property of 5-HT₇ receptors in vitro and ex vivo. This evidence suggests that a native (nonmutated) GPCR, in its native membrane environment (cortical astrocyte primary culture), can function as a homodimer with protomer-protomer cross-talk. Homodimers may be a common GPCR structure. The experimental design used in our studies can be used to explore the properties of other GPCRs in their native forms in recombinant cells, primary cultures expressing the endogenous GPCRs, and possibly in vivo. The homodimer structure and protomer-protomer cross-talk offer new avenues of research into receptor dysfunction in disease states and the development of novel drugs.

Anti-inflammatory effects of m-chlorophenylpiperazine in brain glia cells

Glia cells are regarded as a mediator of neuroinflammation releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide in the central nervous system. Microglia and astrocytes have been reported to play an important role in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. m-Chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP) is used clinically to manipulate serotonergic function, though its precise mechanisms of actions are not well understood. m-CPP alters synaptic transmission and neuronal function in vertebrates by non-selective agonistic actions on 5-HT1 and 5-HT2 receptors. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory effect of m-CPP was investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated microglia and astrocyte cultures. Our results showed that m-CPP significantly decreased the production of nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) in microglia and astrocyte cultures. m-CPP also attenuated the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1beta and TNF-alpha at mRNA levels. In addition, m-CPP inhibited nuclear factor-kappa B activation and phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in the LPS-stimulated microglia cells, providing molecular mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory effects. Moreover, m-CPP was neuroprotective as the drug reduced microglia-mediated neuroblastoma cell death in a microglia-neuron co-culture. These findings suggest that m-CPP may have important implications in the treatment of neuroinflammatory diseases.

Serotonin decreases generation of dopaminergic neurons from mesencephalic precursors via serotonin type 7 and type 4 receptors

Inductive signals mediating the differentiation of neural precursors into serotonergic (5-HT) or dopaminergic neurons have not been clarified. We have recently shown that in cell aggregates obtained from rat mesencephalic precursors, reduction of serotonin levels induces a marked increase in generation of dopaminergic neurons. In the present study we treated rat neurospheres with antagonists of the main subtypes of 5-HT receptors, 5-HT transport inhibitors, or 5-HT receptor agonists, and studied the effects on generation of dopaminergic neurons. Cultures treated with Methiothepin (5-HT(1,2,5,6,7) receptor antagonist), the 5-HT(4) receptor antagonist GR113808;67:00-.or the 5-HT(7) receptor antagonist SB 269970 showed a significant increase in generation of dopaminergic cells. Treatment with the 5-HT(1B/1D) antagonist GR 127935, the 5-HT(2) antagonist Ritanserin, the 5-HT transporter inhibitor Fluoxetine, the dopamine and norepinephrine transport inhibitor GBR 12935, or with both inhibitors together, or 5-HT(4) or 5-HT(7) receptor agonists induced significant decreases in generation of dopaminergic cells. Cultures treated with WAY100635 (5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist), the 5-HT(3) receptor antagonist Ondasetron, or the 5-HT(6) receptor antagonist SB 258585 did not show any significant changes. Therefore, 5-HT(4) and 5-HT(7) receptors are involved in the observed serotonin-induced decrease in generation of dopaminergic neurons from proliferating neurospheres of mesencephalic precursors. 5-HT(4) and 5-HT(7) receptors were found in astrocytes and serotonergic cells using double immunolabeling and laser confocal microscopy, and the glial receptors appeared to play a major role.

5-HT receptors couple to activation of Akt, but not extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK), in cultured hippocampal neurons

5-HT(1A) receptors have been hypothesized to mediate some of the neuronal plasticity and behavioral responses stimulated by serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors. Although the cellular signaling pathways required for inducing these actions have not yet been determined, roles for the neuroprotective extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase and Akt pathways have been suggested. In the current studies we have utilized primary cultures to directly determine whether hippocampal 5-HT(1A) receptors couple to activation of Akt and ERK. We found that E18 hippocampal neurons exhibit a twofold activation of Akt when exposed to nanomolar concentrations of 5-HT. The 5-HT(1/7) receptor-selective agonist 5-carboxamidotryptamine maleate (5-CT) and the 5-HT(1A/7) receptor-selective agonist 8-hydroxy-N,N-dipropyl-aminotetralin (8-OH-DPAT) maleate were found to activate Akt with equal efficacy, and similar potency, to 5-HT. p-MPPI and WAY-100635, antagonists selective for 5-HT(1A) receptors, completely inhibited 5-CT- stimulated Akt activation. Activation of Akt was also inhibited by pretreatment with pertussis toxin as well as the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors, wortmannin and LY294002. In contrast, the 5-HT selective antagonist, SB269970, caused no inhibition. Although the density of 5-HT(1A) receptors expressed by cultured neurons was sufficient to activate Akt, no activation of ERK was observed. These findings suggest that Akt, and not ERK, may be relevant to previous reports of hippocampal 5-HT(1A) receptors mediating neurotrophic responses.

Serotonin 5-HT7 receptors coupled to induction of interleukin-6 in human microglial MC-3 cells

Brain serotonin 5-HT(7) receptors are known to be expressed in neurons and astrocytes. We now report the presence of these receptors in a third type of cell, microglial cells. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), 5-carboxamidotryptamine (5-CT), 5-methoxytryptamine (5-MeOT) and 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) induced concentration-dependent stimulations of cAMP accumulation in the human microglial MC-3 cell line. The maximal effect of 5-HT was 3.4+/-0.3-fold stimulation (mean+/-S.E.M., n=5) above basal levels. The rank order of agonist potency (pEC50 values) was 5-CT (7.09)>5-HT (6.13)>or=5-MeOT (5.78)>>8-OH-DPAT (ca. 5). The effect of 5-CT was inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by the selective 5-HT7 receptor antagonist SB-269970 (pA2 value 9.03). Western blot analysis revealed the presence of immunoreactive bands corresponding to the human 5-HT7 receptor in extracts of MC-3 cells. The presence of two splice variants of the 5-HT7 receptor (5-HT7(a/b)) was visualized by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis with specific primers. In real-time PCR studies, the mRNA for interleukin-6 (IL-6) was found to be increased by 2.5-fold in MC-3 cells after 1 h incubation with 5-CT (1 microM) and this effect was fully blocked by the 5-HT7 receptor antagonist SB-269970 (1 microM). These data show that functional 5-HT7 receptors are present in human microglial MC-3 cells, suggesting that they are involved in neuroinflammatory processes.

Involvement of 5-hydroxytryptamine (HT)7 receptors in the 5-HT excitatory effects on the rat urinary bladder

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the in vitro and in vivo effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) on the rat urinary bladder and to characterize the receptors involved in mediating these pharmacological effects by using selective antagonists.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Female Wistar rats (250-350 g) were used for all studies. In vitro, detrusor muscle strips were mounted between two platinum electrodes in organ baths filled with a modified Krebs' solution bubbled with 95% O(2) and 5% CO(2) at 37 degrees C. After equilibration and a contraction to 80 mmol/L KCl, strips were exposed to electrical field stimulation for 30 min and incubated with the antagonist or vehicle for a further 30 min, then a 5-HT concentration-response curve (CRC) was obtained. In vivo, rats were anaesthetized with pentobarbital, and the ureters and urethra ligated, the bladder catheterized and infused with saline. 5-HT (3-100 microg/kg intravenous) dose-dependently increased intravesical pressure (IVP). After administering 5-HT at 30 microg/kg three times at 10 min intervals (controls), one dose of antagonist was perfused for 5 min and, after a further 5 min, 30 microg/kg 5-HT was tested again. This cycle was repeated four times using increasing doses of the antagonist to be tested.

RESULTS

In vitro, 5-HT (0.01-100 micromol/L) induced a concentration-dependent enhancement of the neurogenic response, with a mean (sd) pEC(50) of 6.36 (0.15) and E(max) of 41.1 (4.6)% KCl (eight rats). In unstimulated tissues, 5-HT induced no contractile effect. Selective 5-HT(4), 5-HT(3) and 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonists had no effect on the 5-HT potentiating effects. The potentiating effect of 5-HT was antagonized by mesulergine at 0.3 micromol/L, R(+)lisuride at 0.3 micromol/L and the selective 5-HT(7) receptor antagonist SB-258741 at 0.3 micromol/L. In vivo, in anaesthetized rats, IVP increases induced by repeated doses of 30 microg/kg 5-HT were reproducible. R(+)lisuride (3-100 microg/kg) dose-dependently inhibited the 5-HT-induced increase of IVP. At the maximum dose tested, R(+)lisuride almost totally inhibited the 5-HT effect.

CONCLUSIONS

In rat isolated detrusor muscle the 5-HT(7) receptor antagonists SB-258741, R(+)lisuride and mesulergine blocked the 5-HT potentiating effect with the expected potency. Moreover, in anaesthetized rats, R(+)lisuride abolished 5-HT effects on IVP at doses that antagonize physiological effects known to be mediated by 5-HT(7) receptor activation in several animal species. These results suggest the involvement of 5-HT(7) receptors in the modulation of rat bladder contraction both in vitro and in vivo.

Functional expression of the serotonin 5-HT7 receptor in human glioblastoma cell lines

Serotonin 5-HT(7) receptors are present in astrocytes. Understanding their role in this type of cell would greatly benefit from the identification of astroglial cell lines expressing this receptor type. The aim of the present study was to assess the expression of native 5-HT(7) receptors and 5-HT(7) receptor mRNA in a number of human glioblastoma cell lines, by means of cAMP measurements, Western blot analysis and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), 5-carboxamidotryptamine (5-CT), 5-methoxytryptamine (5-MeOT) and 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) induced concentration-dependent stimulations of cAMP accumulation in the human glioblastoma cell lines, U-373 MG, U-138 MG, U-87 MG, DBTRG-05MG, T98G, H4, CCF-STTG1 and Hs 683. The rank order of potency was 5-CT>5-HT=5-MeOT>>8-OH-DPAT. The effect of 5-CT was inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by the selective 5-HT(7) receptor antagonist SB-269970 in all human glioblastoma cells. Schild analyses yielded slope factors close to unity (0.89-1.13) and pA(2) values of 8.69-9.05. Western blot analysis revealed the presence of immunoreactive bands corresponding to the human 5-HT(7) receptor in extracts of all human glioblastoma cell lines. The presence of the three splice variants of the 5-HT(7) receptor (5-HT(7(a/b/d))) was visualized by RT-PCR analysis with specific primers in all human glioblastoma cell lines. In conclusion, human glioblastoma cell lines express functional 5-HT(7) receptors and the three splice variants of the corresponding mRNA. These cell lines could serve as model systems of native 5-HT(7) receptors in glial cells to investigate their putative role in processes like release of neurotrophic factors or inflammatory cytokines.

5-HT7 receptor subtype as a mediator of the serotonergic regulation of luteinizing hormone release in the zona incerta

5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and the 5-HT(1A/7) receptor agonist (+)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralinHBr (8-OH-DPAT), injected into the zona incerta (an area in the dorsal hypothalamus) of the female rat, inhibit the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and the effects of both are blocked by the 5-HT(2/7) receptor antagonist, ritanserin. As both 8-OH-DPAT and ritanserin have moderate activity at the 5-HT7 receptor subtype, the possibility that this subtype might mediate their effects in the zona incerta has been investigated. Ovariectomised rats were primed with 5 microg oestradiol benzoate followed at 48 h by 0.5 mg progesterone, which induces an LH surge. 5-Carboxamidotryptamine (5-CT), a potent but non-selective agonist at 5-HT7 receptors, like 5-HT and 8-OH-DPAT, inhibited the LH surge at 5 and 1.25 nmol injected bilaterally into the zona incerta. The non-selective 5-HT(2/7) receptor antagonist ritanserin and the selective 5-HT7 receptor antagonist, (R)-3-(2-(2-(4-methyl-piperidin-1-yl)-pyrrolidine-1-sulfonyl)-phenol (SB-269970-A) at 0.5 microg/side blocked all three receptor agonists when injected concurrently into the zona incerta. However, lower (0.2 microg) and higher doses (2 and 5 microg) of SB-269970-A were less effective, indicating a bell-shaped dose-response curve. SB-269970-A was also inhibitory when administered systemically (1 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.)). When LH release was suppressed by 5 microg oestradiol benzoate, SB-269970-A (0.5 and 2 microg) did not elevate levels, indicating it is unlikely that 5-HT7 receptors mediate a tonic inhibition on release but rather are involved in terminating the pre-ovulatory LH surge. These data demonstrate that 5-HT7 receptors play a role in the regulation of LH by the zona incerta in rat brain.

Pharmacological characterization of an adenylyl cyclase-coupled 5-HT receptor in aplysia: comparison with mammalian 5-HT receptors

We attempted to identify compounds that are effective in blocking the serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptor(s) that activate adenylyl cyclase (AC) in Aplysia CNS. We call this class of receptor 5-HT(apAC). Eight of the 14 antagonists tested were effective against 5-HT(apAC) in CNS membranes with the following rank order of potency: methiothepin > metergoline approximately fluphenazine > clozapine > cyproheptadine approximately risperidone approximately ritanserin > NAN-190. GR-113808, olanzapine, Ro-04-6790, RS-102221, SB-204070, and spiperone were inactive. Methiothepin completely blocked 5-HT stimulation of AC with a K(b) of 18 nM. Comparison of the pharmacological profile of the 5-HT(apAC) receptor with those of mammalian 5-HT receptor subtypes suggested it most closely resembles the 5-HT(6) receptor. AC stimulation in Aplysia sensory neuron (SN) membranes was also blocked by methiothepin. Methiothepin substantially inhibited two effects of 5-HT on SN firing properties that are mediated by a cAMP-dependent reduction in S-K(+) current: spike broadening in tetraethylammonium/nifedipine and increased excitability. Consistent with cyproheptadine blocking 5-HT stimulation of AC, cyproheptadine also blocked the 5-HT-induced increase in SN excitability. Methiothepin was less effective in blocking AC-mediated modulatory effects of 5-HT in electrophysiological experiments on SNs than in blocking AC stimulation in CNS or SN membranes. This reduction in potency appears to be due to effects of the high ionic strength of physiological saline on the binding of this antagonist to the receptor. Methiothepin also antagonized AC-coupled dopamine receptors but not AC-coupled small cardioactive peptide receptors. In conjunction with other pharmacological probes, this antagonist should be useful in analyzing the role of 5-HT in various forms of neuromodulation in Aplysia.

Astrocytes, spontaneity, and the developing thalamus

Recent studies in the ventrobasal (VB) thalamus have shown that astrocytes display spontaneous intracellular calcium [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations early postnatally. [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations are correlated in groups of up to five astrocytes, and propagate between cells. NMDA receptor-mediated, long lasting inward currents in thalamocortical (TC) neurons of the VB complex are correlated to [Ca(2+)](i) increases in neighbouring astrocytes, and stimulation of astrocytic [Ca(2+)](i) increases also lead to inward currents in neurons. These findings suggest that astrocytes are spontaneously active and can induce neuronal activity, a reversal of the previously held view of neuron-glia interactions in the central nervous system. This activity occurs at an important period in the development of the thalamus and therefore suggests a potential functional role in a variety of processes. Along with data on the neurotransmitter receptor repertoire of thalamic astrocytes these findings enlarge the body of knowledge on astrocytes in the thalamus, and further contribute to the emerging field of astrocyte-neuron and neuron-astrocyte interactions in the central nervous system.

Up-regulation of 5-HT2B receptor density and receptor-mediated glycogenolysis in mouse astrocytes by long-term fluoxetine administration

The effects were studied of short-term (1 week) versus long-term (2-3 weeks) fluoxetine treatment of primary cultures of mouse astrocytes, differentiated by treatment with dibutyryl cyclic AMP. From previous experiments it is known that acute treatment with fluoxetine stimulates glycogenolysis and increases free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i]) in these cultures, whereas short-term (one week) treatment with 10 microM down-regulates the effects on glycogen and [Ca2+]i, when fluoxetine administration is renewed (or when serotonin is administered). Moreover, antagonist studies have shown that these responses are evoked by activation of a 5-HT2, receptor that is different from the 5-HT2A receptor and therefore at that time tentatively were interpreted as being exerted on 5-HT2C receptors. In the present study the cultures were found by RT-PCR to express mRNA for 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptors, but not for the 5-HT2C receptor, identifying the 5-HT2 receptor activated by fluoxetine as the 5-HT2B receptor, the most recently cloned 5-Ht2 receptor and a 5-HT receptor known to be more abundant in human, than in rodent, brain. Both short-term and long-term treatment with fluoxetine increased the specific binding of [3H]mesulergine, a ligand for alL three 5-HT2 receptors. Long-term treatment with fluoxetine caused an agonist-induced up-regulation of the glycogenolytic response to renewed administration of fluoxetine, whereas short-term treatment abolished the fluoxetine-induced hydrolysis of glycogen. Thus, during a treatment period similar to that required for fluoxetine's clinical response to occur, 5-HT2B-mediated effects are initially down-regulated and subsequently up-regulated.

Regulation of apolipoprotein E secretion in rat primary hippocampal astrocyte cultures

Apolipoprotein E isoforms may have differential effects on a number of pathological processes underlying Alzheimer's disease. Recent studies suggest that the amount, rather than the type, of apolipoprotein E may also be an important determinant for Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, understanding the regulated synthesis of apolipoprotein E is important for determining its role in Alzheimer's disease. We show here that in rat primary hippocampal astrocyte cultures, dibutyryl-cAMP increased apolipoprotein E secretion with time in a dose-dependent manner (to 177% at 48 h) and that retinoic acid potentiated this effect (to 298% at 48 h). Dibutyryl-cAMP also gave a rapid, albeit transient, increase of apolipoprotein E mRNA expression (to 200% at 1 h). In contrast, the protein kinase C activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate decreased both apolipoprotein E secretion (to 59% at 48 h) and mRNA expression (to 22% at 1 h). Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate also reversed the effects of dibutyryl-cAMP. Apolipoprotein E secretion was also modulated by receptor agonists for the adenylyl cyclase/cAMP pathway. Isoproterenol (50 nM, a beta-adrenoceptor agonist) enhanced, while clonidine (250 nM, an alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist) decreased, secreted apolipoprotein E. We also analysed the effects of agonists for the phospholipase C/protein kinase C pathway. Arterenol (1 microM, an alpha1-adrenoceptor agonist) and serotonin (2.5 microM) enhanced, whereas carbachol (10 microM, an acetylcholine muscarinic receptor agonist) decreased secreted apolipoprotein E. The effects of these non-selective receptor agonists were modest, probably due to effects on different signalling pathways. Arterenol also potentiated the isoproterenol-mediated increase. We also show that phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and dibutyryl-cAMP have opposite effects on nerve growth factor, as compared to apolipoprotein E, secretion, suggesting that the results obtained were unlikely to be due to a general effect on protein synthesis. We conclude that astrocyte apolipoprotein E production can be regulated by factors that affect cAMP intracellular concentration or activate protein kinase C. Alterations in these signalling pathways in Alzheimer's disease brain may have consequences for apolipoprotein E secretion in this disorder.

Multiplicity of mechanisms of serotonin receptor signal transduction

The serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) receptors have been divided into 7 subfamilies by convention, 6 of which include 13 different genes for G-protein-coupled receptors. Those subfamilies have been characterized by overlapping pharmacological properties, amino acid sequences, gene organization, and second messenger coupling pathways. Post-genomic modifications, such as alternative mRNA splicing or mRNA editing, creates at least 20 more G-protein-coupled 5-HT receptors, such that there are at least 30 distinct 5-HT receptors that signal through G-proteins. This review will focus on what is known about the signaling linkages of the G-protein-linked 5-HT receptors, and will highlight some fascinating new insights into 5-HT receptor signaling.

5-HT(7) receptors activate the mitogen activated protein kinase extracellular signal related kinase in cultured rat hippocampal neurons

Medications that selectively increase 5-hydroxytryptamine are currently the most commonly prescribed antidepressants. However, it is not known which receptors for 5-hydroxytryptamine, nor which post-receptor cellular signals, mediate the antidepressant actions of 5-hydroxytryptamine. The hippocampus is highly innervated by serotonergic neurons and appears to be an ideal region of the brain for studying the antidepressant role of 5-hydroxytryptamine. Treatment with antidepressants has been shown to cause increased expression of proteins in the hippocampus that appear to be protective against stress-induced atrophy. This suggests a role for pathways, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase, that regulate protein synthesis. In the present study we found that 5-HT(7) receptors, expressed by cultured rat hippocampal neurons, couple to stimulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase extracellular signal-regulated kinases ERK1 and ERK2. The 5-HT(1/7) receptor-selective agonist 5-carboxamidotryptamine maleate (5-CT) as well as the 5-HT(1A/7) receptor-selective agonists 8-hydroxy-N,N-dipropyl-aminotetralin (8-OH-DPAT) and N,N-dipropyl-5-carboxamidotryptamine maleate (dipropyl-5-CT) were found to activate extracellular signal-regulated kinase with equal efficacy to 5-HT. However, the EC(50) for 8-OH-DPAT was approximately 200-fold greater than that of 5-HT, a difference in potency consistent with the pharmacology of 5-HT(7), but not 5-HT(1A), receptors. Additionally, pretreatment with pertussis toxin, which would be expected to block the actions of 5-HT(1,) but not 5-HT(7,) receptors caused no inhibition. 4-Iodo-N-[2-[4-(methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]N-2-pyridinyl-benzamide hydrochloride (p-MPPI) and N-[2-[4-(2-Methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]-N-2-pyridinyl-cyclohexanecarb oxamide maleate (WAY-100635), antagonists selective for 5-HT(1A) receptors, similarly caused no inhibition of the activity of 5-HT.In summary, these studies are the first to demonstrate that 5-hydroxytryptamine activates the mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK in primary neuronal cultures. That 5-HT(7) receptors couple to activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase in hippocampal neurons suggests a possible role for 5-HT(7) receptors in mediating some of the actions of antidepressants that increase 5-hydroxytryptamine.

Serotonin regulation of nerve growth factor synthesis in neonatal and adult astrocytes: comparison to the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol

Although serotonin regulates synthesis of the neurotrophic factor S-100 beta by astrocytes, its ability to affect nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis has never been examined. We report here that there is a correlation between the effect of serotonin on cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) content and on NGF content in neonatal astrocytes but not in adult astrocytes. In neonatal striatal astrocytes, serotonin increases both cAMP and NGF, whereas, in neonatal cerebellar astrocytes, serotonin decreases both. The increase in neonatal cortical astrocyte cAMP appeared to be too small (45%) to increase NGF significantly. The beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol increased cAMP and NGF in both cortical and striatal astrocytes derived from neonatal rats. In contrast, there was a dissociation between cAMP changes and NGF changes in astrocytes derived from adult rats. Both serotonin and isoproterenol increased cAMP in adult cortical astrocytes, without any effect on NGF content. However, adult striatal astrocytes responded to serotonin with an elevation of both cAMP and NGF, whereas isoproterenol could only enhance cAMP, without affecting NGF. Thus, in neonatal astrocytes, a change of sufficient magnitude in cAMP was correlated with a comparable change in NGF, in response to activation of either serotonergic or beta-adrenergic receptors; in cerebellar astrocytes, the decrease in cAMP was accompanied by a decrease in NGF. In contrast, adult astrocytes were not responsive: Although cAMP changes were large, NGF synthesis was increased only in striatal astrocytes and only in response to serotonin. J. Neurosci. Res. 64:261-267, 2001. Published 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

An endogenous 5-HT(7) receptor mediates pigment granule dispersion in Xenopus laevis melanophores

Melatonin (5-methoxy N-acetyltryptamine) and serotonin (5-HT) exert rapid, but opposite effects on pigment granule distribution in Xenopus laevis melanophores. Low concentrations of melatonin (10(-11) - 10(-9) M) cause a dramatic perinuclear aggregation of the melanin-containing granules, while 5-HT (10(-8) - 10(-5) M) disperses pigment granules throughout the cell. The present study found that pharmacological doses of melatonin (> or =10(-6) M) induced a time- and concentration-dependent pigment granule dispersion, which was mediated by an endogenous melanophore 5-HT receptor. 5-HT produced a concentration-dependent elevation of melanophore cyclic AMP, and 5-HT-induced dispersion was blocked by H89 (10(-4) M), an inhibitor of protein kinase A (PKA), but not by a PKC inhibitor (Ro 31-8220, 10(-5) M), indicating a vital role for cyclic AMP in 5-HT-induced dispersion. 5-HT-mediated dispersion was not blocked by antagonists selective for G(s)-coupled 5-HT(4) (GR113808) or 5-HT(6) (Ro 04-6790, Ro 63-0563, olanzepine) receptors, nor by 5-HT(1 - 3) (pindolol, ketanserine, metoclopramide, MDL72222, tropisetron) receptor antagonists, but was inhibited by a selective 5-HT(7) receptor antagonist, DR4004, and other antagonists with a high affinity for 5-HT(7) receptors. The rank order of antagonist potency was: risperidone (mean pK(B) 7.82)>methiothepin (7.43)>DR4004 (6.92)>mesulergine (6.83)>methysergide (6.60)>[+/-]-sulpiride (5.81)>spiperone (5.52). The agonist potency order [mean pEC(50), 5-CT (8.68)>5-HT (7.13)>5-MT (6.94)>8-OH-DPAT (4.79)>sumatriptan (<4)] was also consistent with an action on 5-HT(7) receptors. RT - PCR confirmed that melanophores express 5-HT(7) receptor mRNA. The pigment dispersing effect of high melatonin concentrations in melanophores is most likely mediated by activation of 5-HT(7) receptors. Conceivably some of the effects attributed to pharmacological doses of melatonin in mammals may be mediated by activation of 5-HT(7) receptors.

Serotonin inhibition of the NMDA receptor/nitric oxide/cyclic GMP pathway in human neocortex slices: involvement of 5-HT(2C) and 5-HT(1A) receptors

The NMDA receptor/nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic GMP pathway and its modulation by 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) was studied in slices of neocortical samples obtained from patients undergoing neurosurgery. The cyclic GMP elevation produced by 100 microM NMDA was blocked by 100 microM of the NO synthase inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine (L-NOARG) or by 10 microM of the soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3,-alpha] quinoxaline-1-one (ODQ). The NMDA effect was prevented by 5-HT or by the 5-HT(2) agonist (+/-)-1-(2, 5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane ((+/-)-DOI; EC(50)=22 nM). The (+/-)-DOI inhibition was insensitive to the 5-HT(2A) receptor antagonist MDL 100907 or the 5-HT(2B) antagonist rauwolscine; it was largely prevented by 1 microM of the non-selective 5-HT(2C) antagonists mesulergine (5-HT(2A,B,C)), ketanserin (5-HT(2A,C)) or SB 200646A (5-HT(2B,C)); it was completely abolished by 0.1 microM of the selective 5-HT(2C) receptor antagonist SB 242084. The NMDA-induced cyclic GMP elevation also was potently inhibited by the selective 5-HT(2C) agonist RO 60-0175 and by the antidepressant trazodone, both added at 1 microM, in an SB 242084-sensitive manner. Finally, the 5-HT(1A) agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin (8-OH-DPAT; 1 microM) inhibited the NMDA-evoked cyclic GMP response, an effect blocked by the selective 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist WAY 100635. In conclusion, the NMDA receptor/NO/cyclic GMP pathway in human neocortex slices can be potently inhibited by activation of 5-HT(2C) or 5-HT(1A) receptors.

First pharmacophoric hypothesis for 5-HT7 antagonism

In order to make the first contribution to the elucidation of essential structural features for 5-HT7 antagonism, a set of thirty 5-HT7 antagonists were selected from the literature. A pharmacophore model was built using Molecular Modeling studies with Catalyst program. The information contained in this model was validated with new synthesized compounds.

Smooth muscle layer-dependent distribution of 5-hydroxytryptamine(7) receptor in the porcine myometrium

1. To analyse the mechanisms of muscle layer-dependent inhibition of porcine myometrial contractility by 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), the effects of 5-HT, 5-carboxamidotryptamine(5-CT), 5-methoxytryptamine (5-MeOT), forskolin and cyclic adenosine 3', 5'-monophosphate (cyclic AMP) analogues on spontaneous and stimulant-induced contractions were examined in longitudinal (LM) and circular muscles (CM). In addition, accumulation of cyclic AMP by 5-HT and distribution of 5-HT(7) receptors in LM and CM layers were compared using biochemical and molecular approaches. 2. 5-HT receptor agonists inhibited the spontaneous contractions of LM and CM (5-CT>5-HT>5-MeOT), but CM was more sensitive than was LM. The inhibition by the agonists was antagonized by methiothepin (100 nM). 3. Carbachol-, high-K(+)-, histamine- and Ca(2+)-induced contractions were inhibited by 5-HT with different responses (CM>LM). Even in the presence of 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX), the inhibition by 5-HT in the CM was still more conspicuous than that in the LM. 4. Compared with the CM, the inhibition of spontaneous contraction by forskolin, dibutyryl-cyclic AMP and 8-bromo-cyclic AMP was marked in the LM. 5. 5-HT (1 nM - 1 microM) increased the cyclic AMP in both muscle layers, but the increment in the CM was higher than that in the LM whether IBMX was present or not. 6. LM and CM layers contained a single class of [(3)H]-5-CT binding sites with a similar K(d) value (0.21 - 0.24 nM). However, B(max) (5-HT(7) receptor concentration) in the CM (120.6 fmol mg(-1) protein) was higher than that in the LM (30.4 fmol mg(-1) protein). 7. The molecular study (reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction) demonstrated the expression of 5-HT(7) receptor mRNA in the CM was higher than that in the LM. 8. These results suggest that the muscle layer-dependent difference in inhibition by 5-HT is not restricted to spontaneous contraction but applies to various contractions in the porcine myometrium. Different inhibition of the contractility by 5-HT is caused by muscle layer-related accumulation of cyclic AMP (CM>LM), due to smooth muscle-layer dependent distribution (CM>LM) of 5-HT(7) receptors.

5-Hydroxytryptamine2B receptors stimulate Ca2+ increases in cultured astrocytes from three different brain regions

The expression of 5-hydroxytryptamine-2B (5-HT2B) receptor mRNA has recently been shown in cultured astrocytes. Here the expression of functional 5-HT2B receptors has been studied in cultured astrocytes from rat cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and brain stem. Fluo-3- and fura-2-based microspectrofluorometry was used for measuring changes in intracellular free calcium concentrations ([Ca2+]i). The 5-HT2B agonist alpha-methyl 5-HT (40 nM) produced rapid transient increases in [Ca2+]i in astrocytes from all three brain regions studied, and these responses were blocked by the selective 5-HT2B antagonist rauwolscine (1 microM). The specificity of the responses to alpha-methyl 5-HT was further demonstrated by the failure of 4-(4-fluorobenzoyl)-1-(4-phenylbutyl)-piperidine oxalate (1 microM), a specific 5-HT2A/5-HT2C antagonist, to block these responses. The 5-HT2B-induced increases in [Ca2+]i persisted in Ca2+-free buffer, indicating that the increase in [Ca2+]i results from mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ stores. The expression of 5-HT2B receptors on astroglial cells was further verified immunohistochemically and by Western blot analysis. These results provide evidence of the existence of 5-HT2B receptors on astrocytes in primary culture.

Serotonergic modulation of astrocytic activity in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus

The present study was undertaken to explore the effects of central serotonin receptor activation on the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of Syrian hamsters. Immunoblot and immunohistochemical procedures were used to examine the effects of systemic application of the serotonin-1A and serotonin-7 receptor agonist, (+/-)-2-dipropyl-amino-8-hydroxyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene hydrobromide (8-OH-DPAT; 3.75 mg/kg) on the contents and distribution of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Administration of 8-OH-DPAT at midday caused a significant reduction in immunoreactive glial fibrillary acidic protein content within 1 h of injection, compared to vehicle controls. This effect was not evident 3 h after drug injection. Treatment with 8-OH-DPAT during the late dark phase had little effect on glial fibrillary acidic protein content. The 8-OH-DPAT-induced reduction in glial fibrillary acidic protein content seen at midday was blocked partially by pretreatment with the serotonin-2 and serotonin-7 receptor antagonist, ritanserin, and more substantially by pretreatment with the serotonin-1A receptor antagonist, NAN-190. Treatment with 8-OH-DPAT also caused a significant redistribution of immunoreactive glial fibrillary acidic protein, such that the dense mesh-like appearance seen in vehicle controls was significantly reduced. The 8-OH-DPAT treatment also significantly decreased expression of polysialic acid, a cell-surface molecule associated with neural plasticity. Immunoblot assessments of glial fibrillary acidic protein contents 2 h before and 1 h after lights off revealed a significant time-of-day difference in glial fibrillary acidic protein expression, with lowest levels occurring at the latter time-point, associated with maximal endogenous serotonin release in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Collectively, these results indicate that acute plastic changes in glial fibrillary acidic protein-related astrocytic activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus can be induced in response to serotonin-7 or serotonin-1A receptor activation in a phase-dependent manner. It is interesting to speculate that circadian reorganizations in astrocytic activity could be regulated by the daily rhythm in serotonin release in the suprachiasmatic nucleus.