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De Bellis M, Boccanegra B, Cerchiara AG, Imbrici P, De Luca A. Blockers of Skeletal Muscle Na v1.4 Channels: From Therapy of Myotonic Syndrome to Molecular Determinants of Pharmacological Action and Back. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24010857. [PMID: 36614292 PMCID: PMC9821513 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The voltage-gated sodium channels represent an important target for drug discovery since a large number of physiological processes are regulated by these channels. In several excitability disorders, including epilepsy, cardiac arrhythmias, chronic pain, and non-dystrophic myotonia, blockers of voltage-gated sodium channels are clinically used. Myotonia is a skeletal muscle condition characterized by the over-excitability of the sarcolemma, resulting in delayed relaxation after contraction and muscle stiffness. The therapeutic management of this disorder relies on mexiletine and other sodium channel blockers, which are not selective for the Nav1.4 skeletal muscle sodium channel isoform. Hence, the importance of deepening the knowledge of molecular requirements for developing more potent and use-dependent drugs acting on Nav1.4. Here, we review the available treatment options for non-dystrophic myotonia and the structure-activity relationship studies performed in our laboratory with a focus on new compounds with potential antimyotonic activity.
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Catalano A, Rosato A, Salvagno L, Iacopetta D, Ceramella J, Fracchiolla G, Sinicropi MS, Franchini C. Benzothiazole-Containing Analogues of Triclocarban with Potent Antibacterial Activity. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:803. [PMID: 34356724 PMCID: PMC8300675 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10070803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Triclocarban (TCC) is a polychlorinated, aromatic, antimicrobial agent commercially used since the 1950s in personal care products for the prevention of spoilage and infections. Humans are frequently exposed to TCC due to its widespread use, leading to its substantial release into the aquatic environment. With the recent ban of TCC from some personal care products, implemented in 2016, many replacement antimicrobial compounds have been studied by researchers. Herein, we report the synthesis and biological activity of a series of diarylureas, analogues of TCC that bear the benzothiazole nucleus as one of the two aryl moieties. Among the studied compounds, 2bF and 2eC showed the highest antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, being also more active than TCC, with MIC values of 8 µg/mL versus 16 µg/mL of TCC. Moreover, compound 2bB was much more active than TCC against Enterococcus faecalis, a Gram-positive bacterium that is, unfortunately, strongly responsible for nosocomial infections. Finally, interesting results were found for compound 2bG that, even though less active than the others, exerts an interesting bactericidal action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Catalano
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.R.); (L.S.); (G.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Antonio Rosato
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.R.); (L.S.); (G.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Lara Salvagno
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.R.); (L.S.); (G.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Domenico Iacopetta
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy; (D.I.); (J.C.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Jessica Ceramella
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy; (D.I.); (J.C.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Giuseppe Fracchiolla
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.R.); (L.S.); (G.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Maria Stefania Sinicropi
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende, Italy; (D.I.); (J.C.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Carlo Franchini
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy; (A.R.); (L.S.); (G.F.); (C.F.)
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The Different Facets of Triclocarban: A Review. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26092811. [PMID: 34068616 PMCID: PMC8126057 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the late 1930s and early 1940s, it was discovered that the substitution on aromatic rings of hydrogen atoms with chlorine yielded a novel chemistry of antimicrobials. However, within a few years, many of these compounds and formulations showed adverse effects, including human toxicity, ecotoxicity, and unwanted environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, quickly leading to regulatory bans and phase-outs. Among these, the triclocarban, a polychlorinated aromatic antimicrobial agent, was employed as a major ingredient of toys, clothing, food packaging materials, food industry floors, medical supplies, and especially of personal care products, such as soaps, toothpaste, and shampoo. Triclocarban has been widely used for over 50 years, but only recently some concerns were raised about its endocrine disruptive properties. In September 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned its use in over-the-counter hand and body washes because of its toxicity. The withdrawal of triclocarban has prompted the efforts to search for new antimicrobial compounds and several analogues of triclocarban have also been studied. In this review, an examination of different facets of triclocarban and its analogues will be analyzed.
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Catalano A, Franchini C, Carocci A. Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel Blockers: Synthesis of Mexiletine Analogues and Homologues. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:1535-1548. [PMID: 32364065 DOI: 10.2174/0929867327666200504080530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mexiletine is an antiarrhythmic drug belonging to IB class, acting as sodium channel blocker. Besides its well-known activity on arrhythmias, its usefulness in the treatment of myotonia, myotonic dystrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is now widely recognized. Nevertheless, it has been retired from the market in several countries because of its undesired effects. Thus, several papers were reported in the last years about analogues and homologues of mexiletine being endowed with a wider therapeutic ratio and a more selectivity of action. Some of them showed sodium channel blocking activity higher than the parent compound. It is noteworthy that mexiletine is used in therapy as a racemate even though a difference in the activities of the two enantiomers was widely demonstrated, with (-)-(R)-enantiomer being more active: this finding led several research groups to study mexiletine and its analogues and homologues in their optically active forms. This review summarizes the different synthetic routes used to obtain these compounds. They could represent an interesting starting point to new mexiletine-like compounds without common side effects related to the use of mexiletine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Catalano
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Carlo Franchini
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Alessia Carocci
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
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De Bellis M, Sanarica F, Carocci A, Lentini G, Pierno S, Rolland JF, Conte Camerino D, De Luca A. Dual Action of Mexiletine and Its Pyrroline Derivatives as Skeletal Muscle Sodium Channel Blockers and Anti-oxidant Compounds: Toward Novel Therapeutic Potential. Front Pharmacol 2018; 8:907. [PMID: 29379434 PMCID: PMC5770958 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mexiletine (Mex) has been recently appointed as an orphan-drug in myotonic-syndromes, being a potent use-dependent blocker of skeletal-muscle sodium channels (NaV1.4). Available evidences about a potential anti-oxidant effect of Mex and its tetramethyl-pyrroline-derivatives in vivo, suggest the possibility to further enlarge the therapeutic potential of Mex-like compounds in myopathies in which alteration of excitation-contraction coupling is paralleled by oxidative stress. In line with this and based on our previous structure-activity-relationship studies, we synthesized new compounds with a tetramethyl-pyrroline-ring on the amino-group of both Mex (VM11) and of its potent use-dependent isopropyl-derivative (CI16). The compounds were tested for their ability to block native NaV1.4 and to exert cyto-protective effects against oxidative-stress injury in myoblasts. Voltage-clamp-recordings on adult myofibers were performed to assess the tonic and use-dependent block of peak sodium-currents (INa) by VM11 and CI16, as well as Mex, VM11 and CI16 were 3 and 6-fold more potent than Mex in producing a tonic-block of peak sodium-currents (INa), respectively. Interestingly, CI16 showed a 40-fold increase of potency with respect to Mex during high-frequency stimulation (10-Hz), resulting the strongest use-dependent Mex-like compound so far. The derivatives also behaved as inactivated channel blockers, however the voltage dependent block was modest. The experimental data fitted with the molecular-modeling simulation based on previously proposed interaction of main pharmacophores with NaV1.4 binding-site. CI16 and VM11 were then compared to Mex and its isopropyl derivative (Me5) for the ability to protect C2C12-cells from H2O2-cytotoxicity in the concentration range effective on Nav1.4. Mex and Me5 showed a moderate cyto-protective effect in the presence of H2O2, Importantly, CI16 and VM11 showed a remarkable cyto-protection at concentrations effective for use-dependent block of NaV1.4. This effect was comparable to that of selected anti-oxidant drugs proved to exert protective effect in preclinical models of progressive myopathies such as muscular dystrophies. Then, the tetramethyl-pyrroline compounds have increased therapeutic profile as sodium channel blockers and an interesting cyto-protective activity. The overall profile enlarges therapeutic potential from channelopathies to myopathies in which alteration of excitation-contraction coupling is paralleled by oxidative-stress, i.e., muscular dystrophies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela De Bellis
- Unit of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy-Drug Science, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Francesca Sanarica
- Unit of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy-Drug Science, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Alessia Carocci
- Unit of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy-Drug Science, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Giovanni Lentini
- Unit of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy-Drug Science, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Sabata Pierno
- Unit of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy-Drug Science, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Diana Conte Camerino
- Unit of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy-Drug Science, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Annamaria De Luca
- Unit of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy-Drug Science, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
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Catalano A, Luciani R, Carocci A, Cortesi D, Pozzi C, Borsari C, Ferrari S, Mangani S. X-ray crystal structures of Enterococcus faecalis thymidylate synthase with folate binding site inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 123:649-664. [PMID: 27517810 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.07.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Infections caused by Enterococcus faecalis (Ef) represent nowadays a relevant health problem. We selected Thymidylate synthase (TS) from this organism as a potential specific target for antibacterial therapy. We have previously demonstrated that species-specific inhibition of the protein can be achieved despite the relatively high structural similarity among bacterial TSs and human TS. We had previously obtained the EfTS crystal structure of the protein in complex with the metabolite 5-formyl-tetrahydrofolate (5-FTHF) suggesting the protein role as metabolite reservoir; however, protein-inhibitors complexes were still missing. In the present work we identified some inhibitors bearing the phthalimidic core from our in-house library and we performed crystallographic screening towards EfTS. We obtained two X-ray crystallographic structures: the first with a weak phthalimidic inhibitor bound in one subunit and 5-hydroxymethylene-6-hydrofolic acid (5-HMHF) in the other subunit; a second X-ray structure complex with methotrexate. The structural information achieved confirm the role of EfTS as an enzyme involved in the folate pool system and provide a structural basis for structure-based drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Catalano
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari "Aldo Moro", Via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Rosaria Luciani
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Alessia Carocci
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari "Aldo Moro", Via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Debora Cortesi
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Cecilia Pozzi
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie, Chimica e Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Chiara Borsari
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Stefania Ferrari
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - Stefano Mangani
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie, Chimica e Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy.
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Synthesis, antiarrhythmic activity, and toxicological evaluation of mexiletine analogues. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 121:300-307. [PMID: 27267000 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.05.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Four mexiletine analogues have been tested for their antiarrhythmic, inotropic, and chronotropic effects on isolated guinea pig heart tissues and to assess calcium antagonist activity, in comparison with the parent compound mexiletine. All analogues showed from moderate to high antiarrhythmic activity. In particular, three of them (1b,c,e) were more active and potent than the reference drug, while exhibiting only modest or no negative inotropic and chronotropic effects and vasorelaxant activity, thus showing high selectivity of action. All compounds showed no cytotoxicity and 1b,c,d did not impair motor coordination. All in, these new analogues exhibit an interesting cardiovascular profile and deserve further investigation.
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Novak KR, Norman J, Mitchell JR, Pinter MJ, Rich MM. Sodium channel slow inactivation as a therapeutic target for myotonia congenita. Ann Neurol 2015; 77:320-32. [PMID: 25515836 DOI: 10.1002/ana.24331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2014] [Revised: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Patients with myotonia congenita have muscle hyperexcitability due to loss-of-function mutations in the chloride channel in skeletal muscle, which causes spontaneous firing of muscle action potentials (myotonia), producing muscle stiffness. In patients, muscle stiffness lessens with exercise, a change known as the warmup phenomenon. Our goal was to identify the mechanism underlying warmup and to use this information to guide development of novel therapy. METHODS To determine the mechanism underlying warmup, we used a recently discovered drug to eliminate muscle contraction, thus allowing prolonged intracellular recording from individual muscle fibers during induction of warmup in a mouse model of myotonia congenita. RESULTS Changes in action potentials suggested slow inactivation of sodium channels as an important contributor to warmup. These data suggested that enhancing slow inactivation of sodium channels might offer effective therapy for myotonia. Lacosamide and ranolazine enhance slow inactivation of sodium channels and are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for other uses in patients. We compared the efficacy of both drugs to mexiletine, a sodium channel blocker currently used to treat myotonia. In vitro studies suggested that both lacosamide and ranolazine were superior to mexiletine. However, in vivo studies in a mouse model of myotonia congenita suggested that side effects could limit the efficacy of lacosamide. Ranolazine produced fewer side effects and was as effective as mexiletine at a dose that produced none of mexiletine's hypoexcitability side effects. INTERPRETATION We conclude that ranolazine has excellent therapeutic potential for treatment of patients with myotonia congenita.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin R Novak
- Department of Neuroscience, Cell Biology, and Physiology, Wright State University, Dayton, OH
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Muraglia M, De Bellis M, Catalano A, Carocci A, Franchini C, Carrieri A, Fortugno C, Bertucci C, Desaphy JF, De Luca A, Conte Camerino D, Corbo F. N-aryl-2,6-dimethylbenzamides, a new generation of tocainide analogues as blockers of skeletal muscle voltage-gated sodium channels. J Med Chem 2014; 57:2589-600. [PMID: 24568674 DOI: 10.1021/jm401864b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
On the basis of a 3D-QSAR study, a new generation of tocainide analogues were designed and synthesized as voltage-gated skeletal muscle sodium channel blockers. Data obtained by screening new compounds by means of Hille-Campbell Vaseline gap voltage-clamp recordings showed that the elongation of the alkyl chain and the introduction of lipophilic and sterically hindered groups on the amino function enhance both potency and use-dependent block. The results provide additional indications about the structural requirement of pharmacophores for further increasing potency and state-dependent block and allowed us to identify a new tocainide analogue (6f) with a favorable pharmacodynamic profile to be proposed as a valid candidate for studies aimed at evaluating its usefulness in the treatment of myotonias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilena Muraglia
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, ‡Sezione di Farmacologia, Università degli Studi di Bari "Aldo Moro" , via E. Orabona n. 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
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10
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De Bellis M, De Luca A, Desaphy JF, Carbonara R, Heiny JA, Kennedy A, Carocci A, Cavalluzzi MM, Lentini G, Franchini C, Camerino DC. Combined modifications of mexiletine pharmacophores for new lead blockers of Na(v)1.4 channels. Biophys J 2013; 104:344-54. [PMID: 23442856 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2012.11.3830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Revised: 11/16/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously identified potent and/or use-dependent mexiletine (Mex) analogs were used as template for the rational design of new Na(v)-channel blockers. The effects of the novel analogs were tested on sodium currents of native myofibers. Data and molecular modeling show that increasing basicity and optimal alkyl chain length enhance use-dependent block. This was demonstrated by replacing the amino group with a more basic guanidine one while maintaining a proper distance between positive charge and aromatic ring (Me13) or with homologs having the chirality center nearby the amino group or the aromatic ring. Accordingly, a phenyl group on the asymmetric center in the homologated alkyl chain (Me12), leads to a further increase of use-dependent behavior versus the phenyl Mex derivative Me4. A fluorine atom in paraposition and one ortho-methyl group on the xylyloxy ring (Me15) increase potency and stereoselectivity versus Me4. Charge delocalization and greater flexibility of Me15 may increase its affinity for Tyr residues influencing steric drug interaction with the primary Phe residue of the binding site. Me12 and Me15 show limited selectivity against Na(v)-isoforms, possibly due to the highly conserved binding site on Na(v). To our knowledge, the new compounds are the most potent Mex-like Na(v) blockers obtained to date and deserve further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela De Bellis
- Unit of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacy-Drug Science, University of Bari, Aldo Moro, Italy
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Searching for new antiarrhythmic agents: Evaluation of meta-hydroxymexiletine enantiomers. Eur J Med Chem 2013; 65:511-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2013.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Revised: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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12
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Obach RS. Pharmacologically active drug metabolites: impact on drug discovery and pharmacotherapy. Pharmacol Rev 2013; 65:578-640. [PMID: 23406671 DOI: 10.1124/pr.111.005439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolism represents the most prevalent mechanism for drug clearance. Many drugs are converted to metabolites that can retain the intrinsic affinity of the parent drug for the pharmacological target. Drug metabolism redox reactions such as heteroatom dealkylations, hydroxylations, heteroatom oxygenations, reductions, and dehydrogenations can yield active metabolites, and in rare cases even conjugation reactions can yield an active metabolite. To understand the contribution of an active metabolite to efficacy relative to the contribution of the parent drug, the target affinity, functional activity, plasma protein binding, membrane permeability, and pharmacokinetics of the active metabolite and parent drug must be known. Underlying pharmacokinetic principles and clearance concepts are used to describe the dispositional behavior of metabolites in vivo. A method to rapidly identify active metabolites in drug research is described. Finally, over 100 examples of drugs with active metabolites are discussed with regard to the importance of the metabolite(s) in efficacy and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Scott Obach
- Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Rd., Groton, CT 06340, USA.
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13
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Desaphy JF, Dipalma A, Costanza T, Carbonara R, Dinardo MM, Catalano A, Carocci A, Lentini G, Franchini C, Camerino DC. Molecular Insights into the Local Anesthetic Receptor within Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels Using Hydroxylated Analogs of Mexiletine. Front Pharmacol 2012; 3:17. [PMID: 22403541 PMCID: PMC3279704 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2012.00017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that the β-adrenoceptor modulators, clenbuterol and propranolol, directly blocked voltage-gated sodium channels, whereas salbutamol and nadolol did not (Desaphy et al., 2003), suggesting the presence of two hydroxyl groups on the aromatic moiety of the drugs as a molecular requisite for impeding sodium channel block. To verify such an hypothesis, we synthesized five new mexiletine analogs by adding one or two hydroxyl groups to the aryloxy moiety of the sodium channel blocker and tested these compounds on hNav1.4 channels expressed in HEK293 cells. Concentration–response relationships were constructed using 25-ms-long depolarizing pulses at −30 mV applied from an holding potential of −120 mV at 0.1 Hz (tonic block) and 10 Hz (use-dependent block) stimulation frequencies. The half-maximum inhibitory concentrations (IC50) were linearly correlated to drug lipophilicity: the less lipophilic the drug, minor was the block. The same compounds were also tested on F1586C and Y1593C hNav1.4 channel mutants, to gain further information on the molecular interactions of mexiletine with its receptor within the sodium channel pore. In particular, replacement of Phe1586 and Tyr1593 by non-aromatic cysteine residues may help in the understanding of the role of π–π or π–cation interactions in mexiletine binding. Alteration of tonic block suggests that the aryloxy moiety of mexiletine may interact either directly or indirectly with Phe1586 in the closed sodium channel to produce low-affinity binding block, and that this interaction depends on the electrostatic potential of the drug aromatic tail. Alteration of use-dependent block suggests that addition of hydroxyl groups to the aryloxy moiety may modify high-affinity binding of the drug amine terminal to Phe1586 through cooperativity between the two pharmacophores, this effect being mainly related to drug lipophilicity. Mutation of Tyr1593 further impaired such cooperativity. In conclusion, these results confirm our former hypothesis by showing that the presence of hydroxyl groups to the aryloxy moiety of mexiletine greatly reduced sodium channel block, and provide molecular insights into the intimate interaction of local anesthetics with their receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-François Desaphy
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacobiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Bari Bari, Italy
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14
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Catalano A, Desaphy JF, Lentini G, Carocci A, Di Mola A, Bruno C, Carbonara R, De Palma A, Budriesi R, Ghelardini C, Perrone MG, Colabufo NA, Conte Camerino D, Franchini C. Synthesis and Toxicopharmacological Evaluation of m-Hydroxymexiletine, the First Metabolite of Mexiletine More Potent Than the Parent Compound on Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels. J Med Chem 2012; 55:1418-22. [DOI: 10.1021/jm201197z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Roberta Budriesi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Bologna, Via Belmeloro 6, 40126
Bologna, Italy
| | - Carla Ghelardini
- Dipartimento
di Farmacologia
Preclinica e Clinica, Università di Firenze, Viale Pieraccini 6, 50139 Firenze, Italy
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Simkin D, Bendahhou S. Skeletal muscle na channel disorders. Front Pharmacol 2011; 2:63. [PMID: 22016737 PMCID: PMC3192954 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2011.00063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Five inherited human disorders affecting skeletal muscle contraction have been traced to mutations in the gene encoding the voltage-gated sodium channel Nav1.4. The main symptoms of these disorders are myotonia or periodic paralysis caused by changes in skeletal muscle fiber excitability. Symptoms of these disorders vary from mild or latent disease to incapacitating or even death in severe cases. As new human sodium channel mutations corresponding to disease states become discovered, the importance of understanding the role of the sodium channel in skeletal muscle function and disease state grows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Simkin
- UMR 6097, CNRS, TIANP, University of Nice Sophia-Antipolis Nice, France
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Searching for novel anti-myotonic agents: pharmacophore requirement for use-dependent block of skeletal muscle sodium channels by N-benzylated cyclic derivatives of tocainide. Neuromuscul Disord 2011; 22:56-65. [PMID: 21802953 PMCID: PMC3314985 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmd.2011.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2011] [Revised: 06/20/2011] [Accepted: 07/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Drug screening on sodium currents of native myofibers by means of voltage-clamp recordings is predictive of pre-clinical anti-myotonic activity in vivo and ex vivo. By this approach we identified the N-benzylated beta-proline derivative of tocainide (To10) as the most potent use-dependent blocker of Nav1.4 so far. We tested novel analogs with modifications on the pharmacophore groups of To10. The substitution of the proline cycle with less planar piperidine or piperazine rings disclosed the importance of a two carbon atom distance and/or an additional nitrogen atom for potency. Structural changes on the xylididic group corroborated the role of a proper electronic cloud for hydrophobic interactions with the binding site. The N-benzylated moiety lead to a stereoselective behavior only in the rigid alpha-proline analog To11 vs. To10 and N-benzylated tocainide (To12). The results confirm the strict structural requirements of Nav1.4 blockers and allow to refine the drug design toward novel anti-myotonic drugs.
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Cavalluzzi MM, Lentini G, Lovece A, Bruno C, Catalano A, Carocci A, Franchini C. First synthesis and full characterization of mexiletine N-carbonyloxy β-d-glucuronide. Tetrahedron Lett 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2010.07.150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Catalano A, Carocci A, Cavalluzzi MM, Di Mola A, Lentini G, Lovece A, Dipalma A, Costanza T, Desaphy JF, Conte Camerino D, Franchini C. Hydroxylated Analogs of Mexiletine as Tools for Structural-Requirements Investigation of the Sodium Channel Blocking Activity. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2010; 343:325-32. [DOI: 10.1002/ardp.200900218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Synthesis of (R)-, (S)-, and (RS)-hydroxymethylmexiletine, one of the major metabolites of mexiletine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetasy.2007.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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