1
|
Karimi SA, Zahra FT, Martin LJ. IUPHAR review: Navigating the role of preclinical models in pain research. Pharmacol Res 2024; 200:107073. [PMID: 38232910 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Chronic pain is a complex and challenging medical condition that affects millions of people worldwide. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of chronic pain is a key goal of preclinical pain research so that more effective treatment strategies can be developed. In this review, we explore nociception, pain, and the multifaceted factors that lead to chronic pain by focusing on preclinical models. We provide a detailed look into inflammatory and neuropathic pain models and discuss the most used animal models for studying the mechanisms behind these conditions. Additionally, we emphasize the vital role of these preclinical models in developing new pain-relief drugs, focusing on biologics and the therapeutic potential of NMDA and cannabinoid receptor antagonists. We also discuss the challenges of TRPV1 modulation for pain treatment, the clinical failures of neurokinin (NK)- 1 receptor antagonists, and the partial success story of Ziconotide to provide valuable lessons for preclinical pain models. Finally, we highlight the overall success and limitations of current treatments for chronic pain while providing critical insights into the development of more effective therapies to alleviate the burden of chronic pain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Asaad Karimi
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Fatama Tuz Zahra
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - Loren J Martin
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Greco R, Demartini C, Zanaboni AM, Francavilla M, De Icco R, Ahmad L, Tassorelli C. The endocannabinoid system and related lipids as potential targets for the treatment of migraine-related pain. Headache 2022; 62:227-240. [PMID: 35179780 DOI: 10.1111/head.14267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Migraine is a complex and highly disabling neurological disease whose treatment remains challenging in many patients, even after the recent advent of the first specific-preventive drugs, namely monoclonal antibodies that target calcitonin gene-related peptide. For this reason, headache researchers are actively searching for new therapeutic targets. Cannabis has been proposed for migraine treatment, but controlled clinical studies are lacking. A major advance in cannabinoid research has been the discovery of the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which consists of receptors CB1 and CB2; their endogenous ligands, such as N-arachidonoylethanolamine; and the enzymes that catalyze endocannabinoid biosynthesis or degradation. Preclinical and clinical findings suggest a possible role for endocannabinoids and related lipids, such as palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), in migraine-related pain treatment. In animal models of migraine-related pain, endocannabinoid tone modulation via inhibition of endocannabinoid-catabolizing enzymes has been a particular focus of research. METHODS To conduct a narrative review of available data on the possible effects of cannabis, endocannabinoids, and other lipids in migraine-related pain, relevant key words were used to search the PubMed/MEDLINE database for basic and clinical studies. RESULTS Endocannabinoids and PEA seem to reduce trigeminal nociception by interacting with many pathways associated with migraine, suggesting a potential synergistic or similar effect. CONCLUSIONS Modulation of the metabolic pathways of the ECS may be a basis for new migraine treatments. The multiplicity of options and the wealth of data already obtained in animal models underscore the importance of further advancing research in this area. Multiple molecules related to the ECS or to allosteric modulation of CB1 receptors have emerged as potential therapeutic targets in migraine-related pain. The complexity of the ECS calls for accurate biochemical and pharmacological characterization of any new compounds undergoing testing and development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rosaria Greco
- Headache Science & Neurorehabilitation Center, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Chiara Demartini
- Headache Science & Neurorehabilitation Center, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Zanaboni
- Headache Science & Neurorehabilitation Center, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy.,Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Miriam Francavilla
- Headache Science & Neurorehabilitation Center, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Roberto De Icco
- Headache Science & Neurorehabilitation Center, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy.,Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Lara Ahmad
- Headache Science & Neurorehabilitation Center, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy.,Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Cristina Tassorelli
- Headache Science & Neurorehabilitation Center, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy.,Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Aalkjær C, Nilsson H, De Mey JGR. Sympathetic and Sensory-Motor Nerves in Peripheral Small Arteries. Physiol Rev 2020; 101:495-544. [PMID: 33270533 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00007.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Small arteries, which play important roles in controlling blood flow, blood pressure, and capillary pressure, are under nervous influence. Their innervation is predominantly sympathetic and sensory motor in nature, and while some arteries are densely innervated, others are only sparsely so. Innervation of small arteries is a key mechanism in regulating vascular resistance. In the second half of the previous century, the physiology and pharmacology of this innervation were very actively investigated. In the past 10-20 yr, the activity in this field was more limited. With this review we highlight what has been learned during recent years with respect to development of small arteries and their innervation, some aspects of excitation-release coupling, interaction between sympathetic and sensory-motor nerves, cross talk between endothelium and vascular nerves, and some aspects of their role in vascular inflammation and hypertension. We also highlight what remains to be investigated to further increase our understanding of this fundamental aspect of vascular physiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Holger Nilsson
- Department Physiology, Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jo G R De Mey
- Deptartment Pharmacology and Personalized Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
McKenna M, McDougall JJ. Cannabinoid control of neurogenic inflammation. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:4386-4399. [PMID: 33289534 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
A significant number of cannabinoids are known to have analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties in various diseases. Due to their presynaptic/terminal location, cannabinoid receptors can inhibit synaptic transmission and have the potential to regulate neurogenic inflammation. Neurogenic inflammation occurs when a noxious signal is detected in the periphery initiating an antidromic axon reflex in the same sensory neurone leading to depolarization of the afferent terminal. Neuropeptides are subsequently released and contribute to vasodilation, plasma extravasation and modulation of immune cells. Endocannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids and phytocannabinoids can reduce neuroinflammation by inhibiting afferent firing and inflammatory neuropeptide release. Thus, in addition to a direct effect on vascular smooth muscle and inflammatory cells, cannabinoids can reduce inflammation by silencing small diameter neurones. This review examines the neuropharmacological processes involved in regulating antidromic depolarization of afferent nerve terminals by cannabinoids and the control of neurogenic inflammation in different diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meagan McKenna
- Departments of Pharmacology and Anaesthesia, Pain Management & Perioperative Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Jason J McDougall
- Departments of Pharmacology and Anaesthesia, Pain Management & Perioperative Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Baron EP. Medicinal Properties of Cannabinoids, Terpenes, and Flavonoids in Cannabis, and Benefits in Migraine, Headache, and Pain: An Update on Current Evidence and Cannabis Science. Headache 2019; 58:1139-1186. [PMID: 30152161 DOI: 10.1111/head.13345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Comprehensive literature reviews of historical perspectives and evidence supporting cannabis/cannabinoids in the treatment of pain, including migraine and headache, with associated neurobiological mechanisms of pain modulation have been well described. Most of the existing literature reports on the cannabinoids Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), or cannabis in general. There are many cannabis strains that vary widely in the composition of cannabinoids, terpenes, flavonoids, and other compounds. These components work synergistically to produce wide variations in benefits, side effects, and strain characteristics. Knowledge of the individual medicinal properties of the cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids is necessary to cross-breed strains to obtain optimal standardized synergistic compositions. This will enable targeting individual symptoms and/or diseases, including migraine, headache, and pain. OBJECTIVE Review the medical literature for the use of cannabis/cannabinoids in the treatment of migraine, headache, facial pain, and other chronic pain syndromes, and for supporting evidence of a potential role in combatting the opioid epidemic. Review the medical literature involving major and minor cannabinoids, primary and secondary terpenes, and flavonoids that underlie the synergistic entourage effects of cannabis. Summarize the individual medicinal benefits of these substances, including analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. CONCLUSION There is accumulating evidence for various therapeutic benefits of cannabis/cannabinoids, especially in the treatment of pain, which may also apply to the treatment of migraine and headache. There is also supporting evidence that cannabis may assist in opioid detoxification and weaning, thus making it a potential weapon in battling the opioid epidemic. Cannabis science is a rapidly evolving medical sector and industry with increasingly regulated production standards. Further research is anticipated to optimize breeding of strain-specific synergistic ratios of cannabinoids, terpenes, and other phytochemicals for predictable user effects, characteristics, and improved symptom and disease-targeted therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eric P Baron
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurological Restoration - Headache and Chronic Pain Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Neurological Institute, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Pressly JD, Soni H, Jiang S, Wei J, Liu R, Moore BM, Adebiyi A, Park F. Activation of the cannabinoid receptor 2 increases renal perfusion. Physiol Genomics 2019; 51:90-96. [PMID: 30707046 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00001.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is an increasing clinical problem that is associated with chronic kidney disease progression. Cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) activation has been shown to mitigate some of the deleterious tubular effects due to AKI, but its role on the renal vasculature has not been fully described. In this study, we investigated the effects of our novel CB2 receptor agonist, SMM-295, on renal vasculature by assessing cortical perfusion with laser Doppler flowmetry and changes in luminal diameter with isolated afferent arterioles. In this study, intravenously infused SMM-295 (6 mg/kg) significantly increased cortical renal perfusion (13.8 ± 0.6%; P < 0.0001; n = 7) compared with vehicle (0.1 ± 1.5%; n = 10) normalized to baseline values in anesthetized C57BL/6J mice. This effect was not dependent upon activation of the CB1 receptor (met-anandamide; 6 mg/kg iv) and was predominantly abolished in Cnr2 knockout mice with SMM-295 (6 mg/kg iv). Ablation of the renal afferent nerves with capsaicin blocked the SMM-295-dependent increase in renal cortical perfusion, and the increased renal blood flow was not dependent upon products synthesized by cyclooxygenase or nitric oxide synthase. The increased renal perfusion by CB2 receptor activation is also attributed to a direct vascular effect, since SMM-295 (5 μM) engendered a significant 37 ± 7% increase ( P < 0.0001; n = 4) in luminal diameters of norepinephrine-preconstricted afferent arterioles. These data provide new insight into the potential benefit of SMM-295 by activating vascular and nonvascular CB2 receptors to promote renal vasodilation, and provide a new therapeutic target to treat renal injuries that impact renal blood flow dynamics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J D Pressly
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee
| | - H Soni
- Department of Physiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee
| | - S Jiang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, University of South Florida College of Medicine , Tampa, Florida
| | - J Wei
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, University of South Florida College of Medicine , Tampa, Florida
| | - R Liu
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, University of South Florida College of Medicine , Tampa, Florida
| | - B M Moore
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee
| | - A Adebiyi
- Department of Physiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee
| | - F Park
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abu Bakar H, Robert Dunn W, Daly C, Ralevic V. Sensory innervation of perivascular adipose tissue: a crucial role in artery vasodilatation and leptin release. Cardiovasc Res 2018; 113:962-972. [PMID: 28371926 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvx062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims Electrical field stimulation (EFS) elicits robust sensory neurogenic relaxation responses in the rat isolated mesenteric arterial bed but these responses are absent or difficult to demonstrate in isolated arteries. We believe that this mismatch is due to the absence of perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) as it is conventionally removed in studies on isolated vessels. We aimed to determine whether sensory nerves are expressed in PVAT, their physiological roles and their possible interactions with PVAT-derived adipokines. Methods and results Using confocal imaging, enzyme immunoassay (EIA), myography, vascular perfusion, and multiplex analysis of rat mesenteric arteries, we show that PVAT is crucial for the roles of sensory nerves in control of vasomotor tone and adipokine release. Immunofluorescence double staining showed co-expression of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP; sensory neurotransmitter) and PGP9.5 (neuronal marker) in PVAT of mesenteric arteries. CGRP release from dissected PVAT, measured using EIA, was increased by capsaicin which activates sensory nerves. EFS in both mesenteric arteries and perfused mesenteric arterial beds, with and without PVAT, demonstrated neurogenic relaxation in the presence of PVAT, which was greatly attenuated in preparations without PVAT. Neurogenic relaxation due to EFS was associated with release of leptin in PVAT-intact mesenteric arterial beds, which was abolished in preparations without PVAT. Exposure to low oxygen was associated with an attenuated leptin and adiponectin release, but an increase in IL-6 release, from mesenteric arterial beds. Exogenous leptin augmented relaxation to CGRP in mesenteric arteries. Conclusion These data show, for the first time, expression of sensory nerves within PVAT and that PVAT is crucial for sensory neurogenic vasorelaxation and crosstalk with adipocytes leading to leptin release, which may augment CGRP-mediated relaxation; leptin release is abolished after exposure to conditions of reduced oxygenation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Craig Daly
- School of Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Vera Ralevic
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Han S, Thoresen L, Jung JK, Zhu X, Thatte J, Solomon M, Gaidarov I, Unett DJ, Yoon WH, Barden J, Sadeque A, Usmani A, Chen C, Semple G, Grottick AJ, Al-Shamma H, Christopher R, Jones RM. Discovery of APD371: Identification of a Highly Potent and Selective CB 2 Agonist for the Treatment of Chronic Pain. ACS Med Chem Lett 2017; 8:1309-1313. [PMID: 29259753 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.7b00396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of a novel, selective and fully efficacious CB2 agonist with satisfactory pharmacokinetic and pharmaceutical properties is described. Compound 6 was efficacious in a rat model of osteoarthritis pain following oral administration and, in contrast to morphine, maintained its analgesic effect throughout a 5-day subchronic treatment paradigm. These data were consistent with our hypothesis that full agonist efficacy is required for efficient internalization and recycling of the CB2 receptor to avoid tachyphylaxis. Based on its overall favorable preclinical profile, 6 (APD371) was selected for further development for the treatment of pain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sangdon Han
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Lars Thoresen
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Jae-Kyu Jung
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Xiuwen Zhu
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Jayant Thatte
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Michelle Solomon
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Ibragim Gaidarov
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - David J. Unett
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Woo Hyun Yoon
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Jeremy Barden
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Abu Sadeque
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Amin Usmani
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Chuan Chen
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Graeme Semple
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Andrew J. Grottick
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Hussein Al-Shamma
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Ronald Christopher
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Robert M. Jones
- Arena Pharmaceuticals, 6154 Nancy Ridge Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kraft B. Is there any clinically relevant cannabinoid-induced analgesia? Pharmacology 2012; 89:237-46. [PMID: 22507873 DOI: 10.1159/000337376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Kraft
- Department of Special Anesthesia and Pain Therapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
The transient receptor potential channel TRPA1: from gene to pathophysiology. Pflugers Arch 2012; 464:425-58. [DOI: 10.1007/s00424-012-1158-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Revised: 09/06/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
11
|
Gratzke C, Streng T, Stief CG, Downs TR, Alroy I, Rosenbaum JS, Andersson KE, Hedlund P. Effects of cannabinor, a novel selective cannabinoid 2 receptor agonist, on bladder function in normal rats. Eur Urol 2010; 57:1093-100. [PMID: 20207474 DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2010.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2009] [Accepted: 02/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabinoid (CB) receptors may be involved in the control of bladder function; the role of CB receptor subtypes in micturition has not been established. OBJECTIVES Our aim was to evaluate the effects of cannabinor, a novel CB2 receptor agonist, on rat bladder function. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS Sprague Dawley rats were used. Distribution of CB2 receptors in sensory and cholinergic nerves of the detrusor was studied. Selectivity of cannabinor for human and rat CB receptors was evaluated. Effects of cannabinor on rat detrusor and micturition were investigated. MEASUREMENTS Immunohistochemistry, radioligand binding, tritium outflow assays, organ bath studies of isolated bladder tissue, and cystometry in awake rats were used. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS CB2 receptor immunoreactivity was expressed in the urothelium and in sensory and cholinergic bladder nerves. Cannabinor exhibited similar binding at human and rat CB2 receptors and a 321-fold functional selectivity for the CB2 receptor versus the CB1 receptor. Cannabinor had no effect on isolated detrusor muscle function. In vivo, cannabinor 3.0mg/kg increased micturition intervals and volumes by 52% (p<0.05) and 96% (p<0.01), respectively, and increased threshold and flow pressures by 73% (p<0.01) and 49% (p<0.001), respectively. Cannabinor 0.3 or 1.0mg/kg or vehicle did not affect urodynamic parameters. CONCLUSIONS Considering that CB2 receptors are localized on sensory nerves and on the urothelium and that cannabinor had effects on "afferent" urodynamic parameters, peripheral CB2 receptors may be involved in sensory functions of rat micturition. Effects of cannabinor on cholinergic nerve activity in normal bladder tissue appear to be limited.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Gratzke
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|