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Kumar A, Das SK, Emdad L, Fisher PB. Applications of tissue-specific and cancer-selective gene promoters for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Adv Cancer Res 2023; 160:253-315. [PMID: 37704290 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acr.2023.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Current treatment of solid tumors with standard of care chemotherapies, radiation therapy and/or immunotherapies are often limited by severe adverse toxic effects, resulting in a narrow therapeutic index. Cancer gene therapy represents a targeted approach that in principle could significantly reduce undesirable side effects in normal tissues while significantly inhibiting tumor growth and progression. To be effective, this strategy requires a clear understanding of the molecular biology of cancer development and evolution and developing biological vectors that can serve as vehicles to target cancer cells. The advent and fine tuning of omics technologies that permit the collective and spatial recognition of genes (genomics), mRNAs (transcriptomics), proteins (proteomics), metabolites (metabolomics), epiomics (epigenomics, epitranscriptomics, and epiproteomics), and their interactomics in defined complex biological samples provide a roadmap for identifying crucial targets of relevance to the cancer paradigm. Combining these strategies with identified genetic elements that control target gene expression uncovers significant opportunities for developing guided gene-based therapeutics for cancer. The purpose of this review is to overview the current state and potential limitations in developing gene promoter-directed targeted expression of key genes and highlights their potential applications in cancer gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Kumar
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Swadesh K Das
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States; VCU Massey Comprehensive Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Luni Emdad
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States; VCU Massey Comprehensive Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Paul B Fisher
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States; VCU Massey Comprehensive Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, United States.
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Hao S, Du X, Song Y, Ren M, Yang Q, Wang A, Wang Q, Zhao H, Du Z, Zhang G. Targeted gene therapy of the HSV-TK/hIL-12 fusion gene controlled by the hSLPI gene promoter of human non-small cell lung cancer in vitro. Oncol Lett 2018; 15:6503-6512. [PMID: 29731853 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.8148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of lung cancer and lung cancer-associated mortality have markedly increased worldwide, and gene-targeted therapy has emerged as a promising treatment strategy. The present study aimed to explore the targeted antitumor effect of the herpes simplex virus-thymidine kinase/human interleukin-12 (HSV-TK/hIL-12) fusion gene regulated by the human secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (hSLPI) promoter of human non-small cell lung cancer (hNSCLC). There were four recombinant eukaryotic expression vectors: pcDNA3.1-CMV-TK, pcDNA3.1-CMV-TK/hIL-12, pcDNA3.1-phSLP-TK and pcDNA3.1-phSLP-TK/hIL-12. These were constructed and transfected into the A549, SPC-A1 and HepG2 cell lines in vitro. The expression of the HSV-TK/hIL-12 fusion gene was detected with reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and the content of hIL-12 was measured using an ELISA. The antitumor effect of the fusion gene on the A549, SPC-A1 and HepG2 cell lines was determined using an MTT assay. Analysis of the experimental data demonstrated that genes regulated by the cytomegalovirus promoter were expressed at the same level in three different tumor cell lines. Genes regulated by the hSLPI promoter were expressed in the A549 and SPC-A1 cell lines, but not in the HepG2 cell line. Coincidentally, the hIL-12 expression levels were similar to those observed in previous RT-PCR findings. In the Pcmv-TK/Pcmv-TK-hIL-12 group for all three cell lines, as well as in the PSLPI-TK/PSLPI-TK-hIL-12 group for the A549 and SPC-A1 cell lines, the cell survival rate declined significantly and the fusion gene transfection group indicated a lower cell survival rate, when compared with single gene transfection group. The present study indicated that the fusion gene regulated by the hSLPI promoter had a targeted antitumor effect on hNSCLC, and that the combined suicide gene and immune gene therapy had a stronger antitumor effect, compared with single gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhong Hao
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyuan Du
- Department of Pathology, Liaoning Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121001, P.R. China
| | - Yang Song
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China.,The Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Cellular Treatment for Metabolic Bone Diseases, Changchun, Jilin 130041, P.R. China
| | - Ming Ren
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China.,The Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Cellular Treatment for Metabolic Bone Diseases, Changchun, Jilin 130041, P.R. China
| | - Qiwei Yang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China.,The Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Cellular Treatment for Metabolic Bone Diseases, Changchun, Jilin 130041, P.R. China.,Research Center, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Ao Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China.,The Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Cellular Treatment for Metabolic Bone Diseases, Changchun, Jilin 130041, P.R. China
| | - Qingyu Wang
- The Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Cellular Treatment for Metabolic Bone Diseases, Changchun, Jilin 130041, P.R. China.,Research Center, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Haiyue Zhao
- Research Center, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Zhenwu Du
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China.,The Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Cellular Treatment for Metabolic Bone Diseases, Changchun, Jilin 130041, P.R. China.,Research Center, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Guizhen Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China.,The Center of Molecular Diagnosis and Cellular Treatment for Metabolic Bone Diseases, Changchun, Jilin 130041, P.R. China.,Research Center, The Second Clinical College, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
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Shinohara ET, Lu B, Hallahan DE. The Use of Gene Therapy in Cancer Research and Treatment. Technol Cancer Res Treat 2016; 3:479-90. [PMID: 15453813 DOI: 10.1177/153303460400300509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene therapy involves identifying a gene of interest and then manipulating the expression of this gene through a variety of techniques. Here we specifically address gene therapy's role in cancer research. This paper will encompass thoroughly investigated techniques such as cancer vaccines and suicide gene therapy and the latest advancements in and applications of these techniques. It will also cover newer techniques such as Antisense Oligonucleotides and small interfering RNAs and how these technologies are being developed and used. The use of gene therapy continues to expand in cancer research and has an integral role in the advancement of cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Shinohara
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Vanderbilt University, 1301 22nd Avenue South, B-902, The Vanderbilt Clinic, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-5671, USA
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Kuzmich AI, Kopantsev EP, Vinogradova TV, Sverdlov ED. Comparative activity of several promoters in driving NIS expression in melanoma cells. Mol Biol 2014. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026893314010075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Braun-Falco M, Rödl D. Recombinant adeno-associated virus vectors for somatic gene therapy in dermatology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1586/17469872.2.2.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Li W, Xiang AP. Safeguarding clinical translation of pluripotent stem cells with suicide genes. Organogenesis 2013; 9:34-9. [PMID: 23511011 DOI: 10.4161/org.24317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The generation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) opens a new avenue in regenerative medicine. However, transplantation of hiPSC-derived cells carries a risk of tumor formation by residual pluripotent stem cells. Numerous adaptive strategies have been developed to prevent or minimize adverse events and control the in vivo behavior of transplanted stem cells and their progeny. Among them, the application of suicide gene modifications, which is conceptually similar to cancer gene therapy, is considered an ideal means to control wayward stem cell progeny in vivo. In this review, the choices of vectors, promoters, and genes for use in suicide gene approaches for improving the safety of hiPSCs-based cell therapy are introduced and possible new strategies for improvements are discussed. Safety-enhancing strategies that can selectively ablate undifferentiated cells without inducing virus infection or insertional mutations may greatly aid in translating human pluripotent stem cells into cell therapies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqiang Li
- Center for Stem Cell Biology and Tissue Engineering, Key Laboratory for Stem Cells and Tissue Engineering, Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong P.R. China
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Bolhassani A, Zahedifard F. Therapeutic live vaccines as a potential anticancer strategy. Int J Cancer 2012; 131:1733-43. [PMID: 22610886 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.27640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The design of efficient cancer treatments is one of the major challenges of medical science. Therapeutic vaccines of cancer have been emerged as an attractive approach for their capacity of breaking the immune tolerance and invoking long-term immune response targeting cancer cells without autoimmunity. An efficient antigen delivery system is the key issue of developing an effective cancer vaccine. In this regard, live vaccination strategies including various live bacterial and viral vectors have attracted a great attention. Several bacterial strains such as Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes and Lactococcus lactis effectively colonize solid tumors and act as antitumor therapeutics. On the other hand, the use of viruses as vaccine vectors such as Vaccinia, Adenovirus, Herpes simplex virus, Paramyxovirus and Retroviruses utilizes mechanisms that evolved in these microbes for entering cells and capturing the cellular machinery to express viral proteins. Viral/bacterial-vectored vaccines induce systemic T-cell responses including polyfunctional cytokine-secreting CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells. However, there is an urgent need for the development of new safe live vaccine vectors that are capable of enhancing antigen presentation and eliciting potent immune responses without the risk of development of disease in humans. Recently, nonpathogenic parasites including Leishmania tarentolae, Toxoplasma gondii and Trypanosoma cruzi have emerged to be a novel candidate for gene delivery and heterologous genes expression. In this review, recent researches on cancer therapy using genetically modified bacteria and virus are summarized. In addition, live parasite-based vectors will be discussed as a novel anticancer therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azam Bolhassani
- Molecular Immunology and Vaccine Research Laboratory, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
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Stritzker J, Pilgrim S, Szalay AA, Goebel W. Prodrug converting enzyme gene delivery by L. monocytogenes. BMC Cancer 2008; 8:94. [PMID: 18402662 PMCID: PMC2329648 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-8-94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2008] [Accepted: 04/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Listeria monocytogenes is a highly versatile bacterial carrier system for introducing protein, DNA and RNA into mammalian cells. The delivery of tumor antigens with the help of this carrier into tumor-bearing animals has been successfully carried out previously and it was recently reported that L. monocytogenes is able to colonize and replicate within solid tumors after local or even systemic injection. Methods Here we report on the delivery of two prodrug converting enzymes, purine-deoxynucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) and a fusion protein consisting of yeast cytosine deaminase and uracil phosphoribosyl transferase (FCU1) into cancer cells in culture by L. monocytogenes. Transfer of the prodrug converting enzymes was achieved by bacterium mediated transfer of eukaryotic expression plasmids or by secretion of the proteins directly into the host cell cytosol by the infecting bacteria. Results The results indicate that conversion of appropriate prodrugs to toxic drugs in the cancer cells occured after both procedures although L. monocytogenes-mediated bactofection proved to be more efficient than enzyme secretion 4T1, B16 and COS-1 tumor cells. Exchanging the constitutively PCMV-promoter with the melanoma specific P4xTETP-promoter resulted in melanoma cell-specific expression of the prodrug converting enzymes but reduced the efficiencies. Conclusion These experiments open the way for bacterium mediated tumor specific activation of prodrugs in live animals with tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Stritzker
- Biocenter (Microbiology), University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany.
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Hengge UR. Gentherapie. GRUNDLAGEN DER MOLEKULAREN MEDIZIN 2008. [PMCID: PMC7120194 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-69414-4_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Die Gentherapie ist eine junge Wissenschaft, die Nukleinsäuren zur Therapie einsetzt (Hengge u. Bardenheuer 2004). Die somatische Gentherapie befasst sich mit der Behandlung von somatischen (Körper-)Zellen (⧁ Tab. 4.1.1), wobei das therapeutische Gen ein im Organismus benötigtes Protein kodiert.
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Hedley D, Ogilvie L, Springer C. Carboxypeptidase-G2-based gene-directed enzyme-prodrug therapy: a new weapon in the GDEPT armoury. Nat Rev Cancer 2007; 7:870-9. [PMID: 17943135 DOI: 10.1038/nrc2247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Gene-directed enzyme-prodrug therapy (GDEPT) aims to improve the therapeutic ratio (benefit versus toxic side-effects) of cancer chemotherapy. A gene encoding a 'suicide' enzyme is introduced into the tumour to convert a subsequently administered non-toxic prodrug into an active drug selectively in the tumour, but not in normal tissues. Significant effects can now be achieved in vitro and in targeted experimental models, and GDEPT therapies are entering the clinic. Our group has developed a GDEPT system that uses the bacterial enzyme carboxypeptidase G2 to convert nitrogen mustard prodrugs into potent DNA crosslinking agents, and a clinical trial of this system is pending.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas Hedley
- Institute of Cancer Research Haddow Laboratories, 15, Cotswold Road, Sutton, Surrey, UK
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11
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Lopez MV, Blanco P, Viale DL, Cafferata EG, Carbone C, Gould D, Chernajovsky Y, Podhajcer OL. Expression of a suicidal gene under control of the human secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) promoter in tumor or stromal cells led to the inhibition of tumor cell growth. Mol Cancer Ther 2007; 5:2503-11. [PMID: 17041094 PMCID: PMC2747019 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-06-0286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The successful use of transcriptional targeting for cancer therapy depends on the activity of a given promoter inside the malignant cell. Because solid human tumors evolve as a "cross-talk" between the different cell types within the tumor, we hypothesized that targeting the entire tumor mass might have better therapeutic effect. Secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) is a matricellular protein overexpressed in different human cancers malignant melanomas both in the malignant cells compartment as in the stromal one (fibroblasts and endothelial cells). We have shown that expression of the herpes simplex virus-thymidine kinase (TK) gene driven by the SPARC promoter in combination with ganciclovir inhibited human melanoma cell growth in monolayer as well as in multicellular spheroids. This inhibitory effect was observed both in homotypic spheroids composed of melanoma cells alone as well as in spheroids made of melanoma cells and stromal cells. Expression of the TK gene was also efficient to inhibit the in vivo tumor growth of established melanomas when TK was expressed either by the malignant cells themselves or by coadministered endothelial cells. Our data suggest that the use of therapeutic genes driven by SPARC promoter could be a valuable strategy for cancer therapy aiming to target all the cellular components of the tumor mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- María V. Lopez
- Gene Therapy Laboratory, Leloir Institute-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Patricia Blanco
- Gene Therapy Laboratory, Leloir Institute-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Diego L. Viale
- Gene Therapy Laboratory, Leloir Institute-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Eduardo G. Cafferata
- Gene Therapy Laboratory, Leloir Institute-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Centro Nacional de Genética Médica (Administración Nacional de Laboratorios e Institutos de Salud Carlos G. Malbrán), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Cecilia Carbone
- Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
| | - David Gould
- Bone and Joint Research Unit, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yuti Chernajovsky
- Bone and Joint Research Unit, Barts and the London, Queen Mary’s School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, United Kingdom
| | - Osvaldo L. Podhajcer
- Gene Therapy Laboratory, Leloir Institute-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Glinka EM, Edelweiss EF, Deyev SM. Eukaryotic expression vectors and immunoconjugates for cancer therapy. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2006; 71:597-606. [PMID: 16827650 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297906060022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
This review considers ways to address specificity to therapeutic targeted anticancer agents. These include transcriptional activation of tissue- and tumor-specific promoters in eukaryotic expression vectors and use of antitumor-directed immunoconjugates. The review deals with analysis of strategies used for selection of targeted promoters and examples of antibody fusion proteins exhibiting antitumor activity. A new direction in antitumor treatment pooling together methods of gene therapy and antibody therapy has appeared. This direction is based on the development of vectors encoding secreted forms of immunoconjugates. After vector introduction into a cell, the latter is capable of synthesizing and secreting antibody fusion protein composed of a therapeutic anticancer agent and antibody specifically targeted to cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Glinka
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia.
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Warrington KH, Herzog RW. Treatment of human disease by adeno-associated viral gene transfer. Hum Genet 2006; 119:571-603. [PMID: 16612615 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-006-0165-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2006] [Accepted: 02/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
During the past decade, in vivo administration of viral gene transfer vectors for treatment of numerous human diseases has been brought from bench to bedside in the form of clinical trials, mostly aimed at establishing the safety of the protocol. In preclinical studies in animal models of human disease, adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors have emerged as a favored gene transfer system for this approach. These vectors are derived from a replication-deficient, non-pathogenic parvovirus with a single-stranded DNA genome. Efficient gene transfer to numerous target cells and tissues has been described. AAV is particularly efficient in transduction of non-dividing cells, and the vector genome persists predominantly in episomal forms. Substantial correction, and in some instances complete cure, of genetic disease has been obtained in animal models of hemophilia, lysosomal storage disorders, retinal diseases, disorders of the central nervous system, and other diseases. Therapeutic expression often lasted for months to years. Treatments of genetic disorders, cancer, and other acquired diseases are summarized in this review. Vector development, results in animals, early clinical experience, as well as potential hurdles and challenges are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth H Warrington
- Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32615-9586, USA
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Abstract
Cancer gene therapy can be defined as transfer of nucleic acids into tumor or normal cells with aim to eradicate or reduce tumor mass by direct killing of cells, immunomodulation or correction of genetic errors, and reversion of malignant status. Initially started with lots of optimism and enthusiasm, cancer gene therapy has shown limited success in treatment of patients. This review highlights current limitations and almost endless possibilities of cancer gene therapy. The major difficulty in advancing gene therapy technology from the bench to the clinical practice is problem with gene delivery vehicles (so called vectors) needed to ferry genetic material into a cell. Despite few reports of therapeutic responses in some patients, there is still no proof of clinical efficacy of most cancer gene therapy approaches, primarily due to very low transduction and expression efficacy in vivo of available vectors. An "ideal" gene therapy vector should be administrated through a noninvasive route and should be targeted not only to primary tumor mass but also to disseminated tumor cells and micrometastases; it should also carry therapeutic gene with tumor-restricted, time-regulated, and sustained expression. Current strategies for combating the cancer with gene therapy can be divided into four basic concepts: (1) replacement of missing tumor suppressor gene and/or blocking of oncogenes or pro-inflammatory genes, (2) suicide gene strategies, (3) induction of immune-mediated destruction, and (4) inhibition of tumor angiogenesis. The advance in the clinical benefit of gene therapy will probably be first achieved with combining it with standard cancer treatment: chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy.
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