Histone chaperones regulate histone exchange during transcription

Transcription-coupled nucleosome assembly

Eukaryotic transcription occurs on chromatin, where RNA polymerase II encounters nucleosomes during elongation. These nucleosomes must unravel for the DNA to enter the active site. However, in most transcribed genes, nucleosomes remain intact due to transcription-coupled chromatin assembly mechanisms. These mechanisms primarily involve the local reassembly of displaced nucleosomes to prevent (epi)genomic instability and the emergence of cryptic transcription. As a fail-safe mechanism, cells can assemble nucleosomes de novo, particularly in highly transcribed genes, but this may result in the loss of epigenetic information. This review examines transcription-coupled chromatin assembly, with an emphasis on studies in yeast and recent structural studies. These studies shed light on how elongation factors and histone chaperones coordinate to enable nucleosome recycling during transcription.

The SET oncoprotein promotes estrogen-induced transcription by facilitating establishment of active chromatin

SET is a multifunctional histone-binding oncoprotein that regulates transcription by an unclear mechanism. Here we show that SET enhances estrogen-dependent transcription. SET knockdown abrogates transcription of estrogen-responsive genes and their enhancer RNAs. In response to 17β-estradiol (E2), SET binds to the estrogen receptor α (ERα) and is recruited to ERα-bound enhancers and promoters at estrogen response elements (EREs). SET functions as a histone H2 chaperone that dynamically associates with H2A.Z via its acidic C-terminal domain and promotes H2A.Z incorporation, ERα, MLL1, and KDM3A loading and modulates histone methylation at EREs. SET depletion diminishes recruitment of condensin complexes to EREs and impairs E2-dependent enhancer-promoter looping. Thus, SET boosts E2-induced gene expression by establishing an active chromatin structure at ERα-bound enhancers and promoters, which is essential for transcriptional activation.

Histone Chaperone Nrp1 Mutation Affects the Acetylation of H3K56 in Tetrahymena thermophila

Histone modification and nucleosome assembly are mainly regulated by various histone-modifying enzymes and chaperones. The roles of histone-modification enzymes have been well analyzed, but the molecular mechanism of histone chaperones in histone modification and nucleosome assembly is incompletely understood. We previously found that the histone chaperone Nrp1 is localized in the micronucleus (MIC) and the macronucleus (MAC) and involved in the chromatin stability and nuclear division of Tetrahymena thermophila. In the present work, we found that truncated C-terminal mutant HA-Nrp1^TrC abnormally localizes in the cytoplasm. The truncated-signal-peptide mutants HA-Nrp1^TrNLS1 and HA-Nrp1^TrNLS2 are localized in the MIC and MAC. Overexpression of Nrp1^TrNLS1 inhibited cellular proliferation and disrupted micronuclear mitosis during the vegetative growth stage. During sexual development, Nrp1^TrNLS1 overexpression led to abnormal bouquet structures and meiosis arrest. Furthermore, Histone H3 was not transported into the nucleus; instead, it formed an abnormal speckled cytoplastic distribution in the Nrp1^TrNLS1 mutants. The acetylation level of H3K56 in the mutants also decreased, leading to significant changes in the transcription of the genome of the Nrp1^TrNLS1 mutants. The histone chaperone Nrp1 regulates the H3 nuclear import and acetylation modification of H3K56 and affects chromatin stability and genome transcription in Tetrahymena.

The histone chaperone Nrp1 is required for chromatin stability and nuclear division in Tetrahymena thermophila

Histone chaperones facilitate DNA replication and repair by promoting chromatin assembly, disassembly and histone exchange. Following histones synthesis and nucleosome assembly, the histones undergo posttranslational modification by different enzymes and are deposited onto chromatins by various histone chaperones. In Tetrahymena thermophila, histones from macronucleus (MAC) and micronucleus (MIC) have been comprehensively investigated, but the function of histone chaperones remains unclear. Histone chaperone Nrp1 in Tetrahymena contains four conserved tetratricopepeptide repeat (TPR) domains and one C-terminal nuclear localization signal. TPR2 is typically interrupted by a large acidic motif. Immunofluorescence staining showed that Nrp1 is located in the MAC and MICs, but disappeared in the apoptotic parental MAC and the degraded MICs during the conjugation stage. Nrp1 was also colocalized with α-tubulin around the spindle structure. NRP1 knockdown inhibited cellular proliferation and led to the loss of chromosome, abnormal macronuclear amitosis, and disorganized micronuclear mitosis during the vegetative growth stage. During sexual developmental stage, the gametic nuclei failed to be selected and abnormally degraded in NRP1 knockdown mutants. Affinity purification combined with mass spectrometry analysis indicated that Nrp1 is co-purified with core histones, heat shock proteins, histone chaperones, and DNA damage repair proteins. The physical direct interaction of Nrp1 and Asf1 was also confirmed by pull-down analysis in vitro. The results show that histone chaperone Nrp1 is involved in micronuclear mitosis and macronuclear amitosis in the vegetative growth stage and maintains gametic nuclei formation during the sexual developmental stage. Nrp1 is required for chromatin stability and nuclear division in Tetrahymena thermophila.

Statistical mechanics of chromosomes: in vivo and in silico approaches reveal high-level organization and structure arise exclusively through mechanical feedback between loop extruders and chromatin substrate properties

The revolution in understanding higher order chromosome dynamics and organization derives from treating the chromosome as a chain polymer and adapting appropriate polymer-based physical principles. Using basic principles, such as entropic fluctuations and timescales of relaxation of Rouse polymer chains, one can recapitulate the dominant features of chromatin motion observed in vivo. An emerging challenge is to relate the mechanical properties of chromatin to more nuanced organizational principles such as ubiquitous DNA loops. Toward this goal, we introduce a real-time numerical simulation model of a long chain polymer in the presence of histones and condensin, encoding physical principles of chromosome dynamics with coupled histone and condensin sources of transient loop generation. An exact experimental correlate of the model was obtained through analysis of a model-matching fluorescently labeled circular chromosome in live yeast cells. We show that experimentally observed chromosome compaction and variance in compaction are reproduced only with tandem interactions between histone and condensin, not from either individually. The hierarchical loop structures that emerge upon incorporation of histone and condensin activities significantly impact the dynamic and structural properties of chromatin. Moreover, simulations reveal that tandem condensin–histone activity is responsible for higher order chromosomal structures, including recently observed Z-loops.

The Candida albicans HIR histone chaperone regulates the yeast-to-hyphae transition by controlling the sensitivity to morphogenesis signals

Morphological plasticity such as the yeast-to-hyphae transition is a key virulence factor of the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans. Hyphal formation is controlled by a multilayer regulatory network composed of environmental sensing, signaling, transcriptional modulators as well as chromatin modifications. Here, we demonstrate a novel role for the replication-independent HIR histone chaperone complex in fungal morphogenesis. HIR operates as a crucial modulator of hyphal development, since genetic ablation of the HIR complex subunit Hir1 decreases sensitivity to morphogenetic stimuli. Strikingly, HIR1-deficient cells display altered transcriptional amplitudes upon hyphal initiation, suggesting that Hir1 affects transcription by establishing transcriptional thresholds required for driving morphogenetic cell-fate decisions. Furthermore, ectopic expression of the transcription factor Ume6, which facilitates hyphal maintenance, rescues filamentation defects of hir1Δ/Δ cells, suggesting that Hir1 impacts the early phase of hyphal initiation. Hence, chromatin chaperone-mediated fine-tuning of transcription is crucial for driving morphogenetic conversions in the fungal pathogen C. albicans.

The determinants of alternative RNA splicing in human cells

Alternative splicing represents an important level of the regulation of gene function in eukaryotic organisms. It plays a critical role in virtually every biological process within an organism, including regulation of cell division and cell death, differentiation of tissues in the embryo and the adult organism, as well as in cellular response to diverse environmental factors. In turn, studies of the last decade have shown that alternative splicing itself is controlled by different mechanisms. Unfortunately, there is no clear understanding of how these diverse mechanisms, or determinants, regulate and constrain the set of alternative RNA species produced from any particular gene in every cell of the human body. Here, we provide a consolidated overview of alternative splicing determinants including RNA-protein interactions, epigenetic regulation via chromatin remodeling, coupling of transcription-to-alternative splicing, effect of secondary structures in pre-RNA, and function of the RNA quality control systems. We also extensively and critically discuss some mechanistic insights on coordinated inclusion/exclusion of exons during the formation of mature RNA molecules. We conclude that the final structure of RNA is pre-determined by a complex interplay between cis- and trans-acting factors. Altogether, currently available empirical data significantly expand our understanding of the functioning of the alternative splicing machinery of cells in normal and pathological conditions. On the other hand, there are still many blind spots that require further deep investigations.

Identification of small molecules that inhibit the histone chaperone Asf1 and its chromatin function

The eukaryotic genome is packed into chromatin, which is important for the genomic integrity and gene regulation. Chromatin structures are maintained through assembly and disassembly of nucleosomes catalyzed by histone chaperones. Asf1 (anti-silencing function 1) is a highly conserved histone chaperone that mediates histone transfer on/off DNA and promotes histone H3 lysine 56 acetylation at globular core domain of histone H3. To elucidate the role of Asf1 in the modulation of chromatin structure, we screened and identified small molecules that inhibit Asf1 and H3K56 acetylation without affecting other histone modifications. These pyrimidine-2,4,6-trione derivative molecules inhibited the nucleosome assembly mediated by Asf1 in vitro, and reduced the H3K56 acetylation in HeLa cells. Furthermore, production of HSV viral particles was reduced by these compounds. As Asf1 is implicated in genome integrity, cell proliferation, and cancer, current Asf1 inhibitor molecules may offer an opportunity for the therapeutic development for treatment of diseases. [BMB Reports 2015; 48(12): 685-690]

Histone Chaperone Nap1 Is a Major Regulator of Histone H2A-H2B Dynamics at the Inducible GAL Locus

Histone chaperones, like nucleosome assembly protein 1 (Nap1), play a critical role in the maintenance of chromatin architecture. Here, we use the GAL locus in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to investigate the influence of Nap1 on chromatin structure and histone dynamics during distinct transcriptional states. When the GAL locus is not expressed, cells lacking Nap1 show an accumulation of histone H2A-H2B but not histone H3-H4 at this locus. Excess H2A-H2B interacts with the linker DNA between nucleosomes, and the interaction is independent of the inherent DNA-binding affinity of H2A-H2B for these particular sequences as measured in vitro When the GAL locus is transcribed, excess H2A-H2B is reversed, and levels of all chromatin-bound histones are depleted in cells lacking Nap1. We developed an in vivo system to measure histone exchange at the GAL locus and observed considerable variability in the rate of exchange across the locus in wild-type cells. We recapitulate this variability with in vitro nucleosome reconstitutions, which suggests a contribution of DNA sequence to histone dynamics. We also find that Nap1 is required for transcription-dependent H2A-H2B exchange. Altogether, these results indicate that Nap1 is essential for maintaining proper chromatin composition and modulating the exchange of H2A-H2B in vivo.

A nucleosome turnover map reveals that the stability of histone H4 Lys20 methylation depends on histone recycling in transcribed chromatin

Nucleosome composition actively contributes to chromatin structure and accessibility. Cells have developed mechanisms to remove or recycle histones, generating a landscape of differentially aged nucleosomes. This study aimed to create a high-resolution, genome-wide map of nucleosome turnover in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The recombination-induced tag exchange (RITE) method was used to study replication-independent nucleosome turnover through the appearance of new histone H3 and the disappearance or preservation of old histone H3. The genome-wide location of histones was determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation-exonuclease methodology (ChIP-exo). The findings were compared with diverse chromatin marks, including histone variant H2A.Z, post-translational histone modifications, and Pol II binding. Finally, genome-wide mapping of the methylation states of H4K20 was performed to determine the relationship between methylation (mono, di, and tri) of this residue and nucleosome turnover. Our analysis showed that histone recycling resulted in low nucleosome turnover in the coding regions of active genes, stably expressed at intermediate levels. High levels of transcription resulted in the incorporation of new histones primarily at the end of transcribed units. H4K20 was methylated in low-turnover nucleosomes in euchromatic regions, notably in the coding regions of long genes that were expressed at low levels. This transcription-dependent accumulation of histone methylation was dependent on the histone chaperone complex FACT. Our data showed that nucleosome turnover is highly dynamic in the genome and that several mechanisms are at play to either maintain or suppress stability. In particular, we found that FACT-associated transcription conserves histones by recycling them and is required for progressive H4K20 methylation.

Uncoupling histone turnover from transcription-associated histone H3 modifications

Transcription in eukaryotes is associated with two major changes in chromatin organization. Firstly, nucleosomal histones are continuously replaced by new histones, an event that in yeast occurs predominantly at transcriptionally active promoters. Secondly, histones become modified post-translationally at specific lysine residues. Some modifications, including histone H3 trimethylation at lysine 4 (H3K4me3) and acetylation at lysines 9 (H3K9ac) and 14 (H3K14ac), are specifically enriched at active promoters where histones exchange, suggesting a possible causal relationship. Other modifications accumulate within transcribed regions and one of them, H3K36me3, is thought to prevent histone exchange. Here we explored the relationship between these four H3 modifications and histone turnover at a few selected genes. Using lysine-to-arginine mutants and a histone exchange assay, we found that none of these modifications plays a major role in either promoting or preventing histone turnover. Unexpectedly, mutation of H3K56, whose acetylation occurs prior to chromatin incorporation, had an effect only when introduced into the nucleosomal histone. Furthermore, we used various genetic approaches to show that histone turnover can be experimentally altered with no major consequence on the H3 modifications tested. Together, these results suggest that transcription-associated histone turnover and H3 modification are two correlating but largely independent events.

Set7 facilitates hepatitis C virus replication via enzymatic activity-dependent attenuation of the IFN-related pathway

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major cause of chronic liver disease, usually resulting in persistent infection involving hepatic steatosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma via escape of the host's immune response. Set7 is a lysine-specific methyltransferase that is involved in gene regulation and virus replication. However, the mechanism underlying the immune evasion between HCV and Set7 is not well understood. In this study, we observed that the expression of Set7 in Huh7.5.1 cells was upregulated by HCV infection, and high levels of Set7 expression were also found in the sera, PBMCs, and liver tissue of HCV patients relative to healthy individuals. Further investigation showed that Set7 enhanced HCV replication in an enzymatic activity-dependent manner. Moreover, our data showed that Set7 decreased the expression of virus-induced IFN and IFN-related effectors, such as dsRNA-activated protein kinase and 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase. Further investigation suggested that Set7 suppressed the endogenous IFN expression by reducing the nuclear translocation of IFN regulatory factor 3/7 and the p65 subunit of NF-κB and reduced IFN-induced dsRNA-activated protein kinase and 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase via attenuation of the phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT2. Additionally, IFN receptors, including IFNAR1 and IFNAR2, which are located upstream of the JAK/STAT pathway, were reduced by Set7. Taken together, our results reveal that Set7 facilitates HCV replication through the attenuation of IFN signaling pathways and IFN-related effectors.

Histone exchange and histone modifications during transcription and aging

The organization of the eukaryotic genome into chromatin enables DNA to fit inside the nucleus while also regulating the access of proteins to the DNA to facilitate genomic functions such as transcription, replication and repair. The basic repeating unit of chromatin is the nucleosome, which includes 147 bp of DNA wrapped 1.65 times around an octamer of core histone proteins comprising two molecules each of H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. Each nucleosome is a highly stable unit, being maintained by over 120 direct protein-DNA interactions and several hundred water mediated ones. Accordingly, there is considerable interest in understanding how processive enzymes such as RNA polymerases manage to pass along the coding regions of our genes that are tightly packaged into arrays of nucleosomes. Here we present the current mechanistic understanding of this process and the evidence for profound changes in chromatin dynamics during aging. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Histone chaperones and Chromatin assembly.

Regulation of histone gene transcription in yeast

Histones are the primary protein component of chromatin, the mixture of DNA and proteins that packages the genetic material in eukaryotes. Large amounts of histones are required during the S phase of the cell cycle when genome replication occurs. However, ectopic expression of histones during other cell cycle phases is toxic; thus, histone expression is restricted to the S phase and is tightly regulated at multiple levels, including transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational. In this review, we discuss mechanisms of regulation of histone gene expression with emphasis on the transcriptional regulation of the replication-dependent histone genes in the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Recombination-induced tag exchange (RITE) cassette series to monitor protein dynamics in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Proteins are not static entities. They are highly mobile, and their steady-state levels are achieved by a balance between ongoing synthesis and degradation. The dynamic properties of a protein can have important consequences for its function. For example, when a protein is degraded and replaced by a newly synthesized one, posttranslational modifications are lost and need to be reincorporated in the new molecules. Protein stability and mobility are also relevant for the duplication of macromolecular structures or organelles, which involves coordination of protein inheritance with the synthesis and assembly of newly synthesized proteins. To measure protein dynamics, we recently developed a genetic pulse-chase assay called recombination-induced tag exchange (RITE). RITE has been successfully used in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to measure turnover and inheritance of histone proteins, to study changes in posttranslational modifications on aging proteins, and to visualize the spatiotemporal inheritance of protein complexes and organelles in dividing cells. Here we describe a series of successful RITE cassettes that are designed for biochemical analyses, genomics studies, as well as single cell fluorescence applications. Importantly, the genetic nature and the stability of the tag switch offer the unique possibility to combine RITE with high-throughput screening for protein dynamics mutants and mechanisms. The RITE cassettes are widely applicable, modular by design, and can therefore be easily adapted for use in other cell types or organisms.

Viral and cellular factors involved in Phloem transport of plant viruses

Phloem transport of plant viruses is an essential step in the setting-up of a complete infection of a host plant. After an initial replication step in the first cells, viruses spread from cell-to-cell through mesophyll cells, until they reach the vasculature where they rapidly move to distant sites in order to establish the infection of the whole plant. This last step is referred to as systemic transport, or long-distance movement, and involves virus crossings through several cellular barriers: bundle sheath, vascular parenchyma, and companion cells for virus loading into sieve elements (SE). Viruses are then passively transported within the source-to-sink flow of photoassimilates and are unloaded from SE into sink tissues. However, the molecular mechanisms governing virus long-distance movement are far from being understood. While most viruses seem to move systemically as virus particles, some viruses are transported in SE as viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNP). The nature of the cellular and viral factors constituting these RNPs is still poorly known. The topic of this review will mainly focus on the host and viral factors that facilitate or restrict virus long-distance movement.

Dissecting the roles of the histone chaperones reveals the evolutionary conserved mechanism of transcription-coupled deposition of H3.3

The mammalian genome encodes multiple variants of histone H3 including H3.1/H3.2 and H3.3. In contrast to H3.1/H3.2, H3.3 is enriched in the actively transcribed euchromatin and the telomeric heterochromatins. However, the mechanism for H3.3 to incorporate into the different domains of chromatin is not known. Here, taking the advantage of well-defined transcription analysis system of yeast, we attempted to understand the molecular mechanism of selective deposition of human H3.3 into actively transcribed genes. We show that there are systemic H3 substrate-selection mechanisms operating even in yeasts, which encode a single type of H3. Yeast HIR complex mediated H3-specific recognition specificity for deposition of H3.3 in the transcribed genes. A critical component of this process was the H3 A-IG code composed of amino acids 87, 89 and 90. The preference toward H3.3 was completely lost when HIR subunits were absent and partially suppressed by human HIRA. Asf1 allows the influx of H3, regardless of H3 type. We propose that H3.3 is introduced into the active euchromatin by targeting the recycling pathway that is mediated by HIRA (or HIR), and this H3-selection mechanism is highly conserved through the evolution. These results also uncover an unexpected role of RI chaperones in evolution of variant H3s.

Transcriptional regulation by the Set7 lysine methyltransferase

Posttranslational histone modifications define chromatin structure and function. In recent years, a number of studies have characterized many of the enzymatic activities and diverse regulatory components required for monomethylation of histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me1) and the expression of specific genes. The challenge now is to understand how this specific chemical modification is written and the Set7 methyltransferase has emerged as a key regulatory enzyme mediating methylation of lysine residues of histone and non-histone proteins. In this review, we comprehensively explore the regulatory proteins modified by Set7 and highlight mechanisms of specific co-recruitment of the enzyme to activating promoters. With a focus on signaling and transcriptional control in disease we discuss recent experimental data emphasizing specific components of diverse regulatory complexes that mediate chromatin modification and reinterpretation of Set7-mediated gene expression.

Sim3 shares some common roles with the histone chaperone Asf1 in fission yeast

An H3/H4 histone chaperone, Asf1, plays an essential role in maintaining genomic stability in many species, including fission yeast. Here, we showed that overexpression of a CENP-A chaperone Sim3 suppressed the temperature sensitive phenotype of asf1-33 and asf1-30 mutants and the defect in chromatin structure, and prevented the accumulation of DNA damage in asf1-33 mutants at high temperatures. Furthermore, asf1-33 and Δsim3 were synthetic lethal. Consistent with this, shutdown of sim3 expression in asf1-33 Δsim3 double mutants that contained extragenic sim3 resulted in growth retardation. In addition, the Δsim3 mutant displayed sensitivity to thiabendazol and hydroxyurea, which suggests that Sim3 plays a general role in maintaining chromatin structure. Our results suggest a possibility that Sim3 functions as a histone chaperone.

Tension-dependent nucleosome remodeling at the pericentromere in yeast

Dynamics of histones under tension in the pericentromere depends on RSC and ISW2 chromatin remodeling. The underlying pericentromeric chromatin forms a platform that is required to maintain kinetochore structure when under spindle-based tension.

Nucleosome positioning is important for the structural integrity of chromosomes. During metaphase the mitotic spindle exerts physical force on pericentromeric chromatin. The cell must adjust the pericentromeric chromatin to accommodate the changing tension resulting from microtubule dynamics to maintain a stable metaphase spindle. Here we examine the effects of spindle-based tension on nucleosome dynamics by measuring the histone turnover of the chromosome arm and the pericentromere during metaphase in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We find that both histones H2B and H4 exhibit greater turnover in the pericentromere during metaphase. Loss of spindle-based tension by treatment with the microtubule-depolymerizing drug nocodazole or compromising kinetochore function results in reduced histone turnover in the pericentromere. Pericentromeric histone dynamics are influenced by the chromatin-remodeling activities of STH1/NPS1 and ISW2. Sth1p is the ATPase component of the Remodels the Structure of Chromatin (RSC) complex, and Isw2p is an ATP-dependent DNA translocase member of the Imitation Switch (ISWI) subfamily of chromatin-remodeling factors. The balance between displacement and insertion of pericentromeric histones provides a mechanism to accommodate spindle-based tension while maintaining proper chromatin packaging during mitosis.

The histone chaperone ASF1 is essential for sexual development in the filamentous fungus Sordaria macrospora

Ascomycetes develop four major types of fruiting bodies that share a common ancestor, and a set of common core genes most likely controls this process. One way to identify such genes is to search for conserved expression patterns. We analysed microarray data of Fusarium graminearum and Sordaria macrospora, identifying 78 genes with similar expression patterns during fruiting body development. One of these genes was asf1 (anti-silencing function 1), encoding a predicted histone chaperone. asf1 expression is also upregulated during development in the distantly related ascomycete Pyronema confluens. To test whether asf1 plays a role in fungal development, we generated an S. macrospora asf1 deletion mutant. The mutant is sterile and can be complemented to fertility by transformation with the wild-type asf1 and its P. confluens homologue. An ASF1-EGFP fusion protein localizes to the nucleus. By tandem-affinity purification/mass spectrometry as well as yeast two-hybrid analysis, we identified histones H3 and H4 as ASF1 interaction partners. Several developmental genes are dependent on asf1 for correct transcriptional expression. Deletion of the histone chaperone genes rtt106 and cac2 did not cause any developmental phenotypes. These data indicate that asf1 of S. macrospora encodes a conserved histone chaperone that is required for fruiting body development.

Inositol phosphate kinase Vip1p interacts with histone chaperone Asf1p in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Histone eviction and deposition are critical steps in many nuclear processes. The histone H3/H4 chaperone Asf1p is highly conserved and is involved in DNA replication, DNA repair, and transcription. To identify the factors concerned with anti-silencing function 1 (ASF1), we purified Asf1p-associated factors from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae by a GST pull-down experiment, and mass spectrometry analysis was performed. Several factors are specifically associated with Asf1p, including Vip1p. VIP1 is conserved from yeast to humans and encodes inositol hexakisphoshate and inositol heptakisphosphate kinase. Vip1p interacted with Asf1p as a dimer or in a complex with another protein(s). Deletion of VIP1 did not affect the interaction between Asf1p and other Asf1p-associated factors. An in vitro GST pull-down assay indicated a direct interaction between Asf1p and Vip1p, and the interaction between the two factors in vivo was detected by an immunoprecipitation experiment. Furthermore, genetic experiments revealed that VIP1 disruption increased sensitivity to 6-azauracil (6-AU), but not to DNA-damaging reagents in wild-type and ASF1-deleted strains. It is thought that 6-AU decreases nucleotide levels and reduces transcription elongation. These observations suggest that the association of Asf1p and Vip1p may be implicated in transcription elongation.

FACT, the Bur kinase pathway, and the histone co-repressor HirC have overlapping nucleosome-related roles in yeast transcription elongation

Gene transcription is constrained by the nucleosomal nature of chromosomal DNA. This nucleosomal barrier is modulated by FACT, a conserved histone-binding heterodimer. FACT mediates transcription-linked nucleosome disassembly and also nucleosome reassembly in the wake of the RNA polymerase II transcription complex, and in this way maintains the repression of ‘cryptic’ promoters found within some genes. Here we focus on a novel mutant version of the yeast FACT subunit Spt16 that supplies essential Spt16 activities but impairs transcription-linked nucleosome reassembly in dominant fashion. This Spt16 mutant protein also has genetic effects that are recessive, which we used to show that certain Spt16 activities collaborate with histone acetylation and the activities of a Bur-kinase/Spt4–Spt5/Paf1C pathway that facilitate transcription elongation. These collaborating activities were opposed by the actions of Rpd3S, a histone deacetylase that restores a repressive chromatin environment in a transcription-linked manner. Spt16 activity paralleling that of HirC, a co-repressor of histone gene expression, was also found to be opposed by Rpd3S. Our findings suggest that Spt16, the Bur/Spt4–Spt5/Paf1C pathway, and normal histone abundance and/or stoichiometry, in mutually cooperative fashion, facilitate nucleosome disassembly during transcription elongation. The recessive nature of these effects of the mutant Spt16 protein on transcription-linked nucleosome disassembly, contrasted to its dominant negative effect on transcription-linked nucleosome reassembly, indicate that mutant FACT harbouring the mutant Spt16 protein competes poorly with normal FACT at the stage of transcription-linked nucleosome disassembly, but effectively with normal FACT for transcription-linked nucleosome reassembly. This functional difference is consistent with the idea that FACT association with the transcription elongation complex depends on nucleosome disassembly, and that the same FACT molecule that associates with an elongation complex through nucleosome disassembly is retained for reassembly of the same nucleosome.

A barcode screen for epigenetic regulators reveals a role for the NuB4/HAT-B histone acetyltransferase complex in histone turnover

Dynamic modification of histone proteins plays a key role in regulating gene expression. However, histones themselves can also be dynamic, which potentially affects the stability of histone modifications. To determine the molecular mechanisms of histone turnover, we developed a parallel screening method for epigenetic regulators by analyzing chromatin states on DNA barcodes. Histone turnover was quantified by employing a genetic pulse-chase technique called RITE, which was combined with chromatin immunoprecipitation and high-throughput sequencing. In this screen, the NuB4/HAT-B complex, containing the conserved type B histone acetyltransferase Hat1, was found to promote histone turnover. Unexpectedly, the three members of this complex could be functionally separated from each other as well as from the known interacting factor and histone chaperone Asf1. Thus, systematic and direct interrogation of chromatin structure on DNA barcodes can lead to the discovery of genes and pathways involved in chromatin modification and dynamics.

Histone acetyltransferase 1: more than just an enzyme?

Histone acetyltransferase 1 (HAT1) is an enzyme that is likely to be responsible for the acetylation that occurs on lysines 5 and 12 of the NH2-terminal tail of newly synthesized histone H4. Initial studies suggested that, despite its evolutionary conservation, this modification of new histone H4 played only a minor role in chromatin assembly. However, a number of recent studies have brought into focus the important role of both this modification and HAT1 in histone dynamics. Surprisingly, the function of HAT1 in chromatin assembly may extend beyond just its catalytic activity to include its role as a major histone binding protein. These results are incorporated into a model for the function of HAT1 in histone deposition and chromatin assembly. This article is part of a Special issue entitled: Histone chaperones and Chromatin assembly.

Identification of histone mutants that are defective for transcription-coupled nucleosome occupancy

Our previous studies of Saccharomyces cerevisiae described a gene repression mechanism where the transcription of intergenic noncoding DNA (ncDNA) (SRG1) assembles nucleosomes across the promoter of the adjacent SER3 gene that interfere with the binding of transcription factors. To investigate the role of histones in this mechanism, we screened a comprehensive library of histone H3 and H4 mutants for those that derepress SER3. We identified mutations altering eight histone residues (H3 residues V46, R49, V117, Q120, and K122 and H4 residues R36, I46, and S47) that strongly increase SER3 expression without reducing the transcription of the intergenic SRG1 ncDNA. We detected reduced nucleosome occupancy across SRG1 in these mutants to degrees that correlate well with the level of SER3 derepression. The histone chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments on several other genes suggest that the loss of nucleosomes in these mutants is specific to highly transcribed regions. Interestingly, two of these histone mutants, H3 R49A and H3 V46A, reduce Set2-dependent methylation of lysine 36 of histone H3 and allow transcription initiation from cryptic intragenic promoters. Taken together, our data identify a new class of histone mutants that is defective for transcription-dependent nucleosome occupancy.

The activity of the histone chaperone yeast Asf1 in the assembly and disassembly of histone H3/H4-DNA complexes

The deposition of the histones H3/H4 onto DNA to give the tetrasome intermediate and the displacement of H3/H4 from DNA are thought to be the first and the last steps in nucleosome assembly and disassembly, respectively. Anti-silencing function 1 (Asf1) is a chaperone of the H3/H4 dimer that functions in both of these processes. However, little is known about the thermodynamics of chaperone–histone interactions or the direct role of Asf1 in the formation or disassembly of histone–DNA complexes. Here, we show that Saccharomyces cerevisiae Asf1 shields H3/H4 from unfavorable DNA interactions and aids the formation of favorable histone–DNA interactions through the formation of disomes. However, Asf1 was unable to disengage histones from DNA for tetrasomes formed with H3/H4 and strong nucleosome positioning DNA sequences or tetrasomes weakened by mutant (H3K56Q/H4) histones or non-positioning DNA sequences. Furthermore, Asf1 did not associate with preformed tetrasomes. These results are consistent with the measured affinity of Asf1 for H3/H4 dimers of 2.5 nM, which is weaker than the association of H3/H4 for DNA. These studies support a mechanism by which Asf1 aids H3/H4 deposition onto DNA but suggest that additional factors or post-translational modifications are required for Asf1 to remove H3/H4 from tetrasome intermediates in chromatin.

New nuclear partners for nucleosome assembly protein 1: unexpected associations

Histone chaperones are important players in chromatin dynamics. They are instrumental in nucleosome assembly and disassembly and in histone variant exchange reactions that occur during DNA transactions. The molecular mechanisms of their action are not well understood and may involve interactions with various protein partners in the context of the nucleus. In an attempt to further elucidate nuclear roles of histone chaperones, we performed a proteomic search for nuclear partners of a particular histone chaperone, nucleosome assembly protein 1 (Nap1). Proteins recognized as Nap1 partners by immuno-affinity capture and Far Western blots were identified by mass spectrometry. The identified partners are known to participate in a number of nuclear processes, including DNA replication, recombination, and repair as well as RNA transcription and splicing. Finding nuclear actin among the Nap1 partners may be of particular significance, in view of actin's role in transcription, transcription regulation, and RNA splicing. We are proposing a model of how actin-Nap1 interaction may be involved in transcription elongation through chromatin. In addition, awareness of the interactions between Nap1 and Hsp70, another identified partner, may help to understand nucleosome dynamics around sites of single-strand DNA break repair. These studies represent a starting point for further investigation of Nap1 associations in human cells.

Splitting of H3-H4 tetramers at transcriptionally active genes undergoing dynamic histone exchange

Nucleosome deposition occurs on newly synthesized DNA during DNA replication and on transcriptionally active genes via nucleosome-remodeling complexes recruited by activator proteins and elongating RNA polymerase II. It has been long believed that histone deposition involves stable H3-H4 tetramers, such that newly deposited nucleosomes do not contain H3 and H4 molecules with their associated histone modifications from preexisting nucleosomes. However, biochemical analyses and recent experiments in mammalian cells have raised the idea that preexisting H3-H4 tetramers might split into dimers, resulting in mixed nucleosomes composed of "old" and "new" histones. It is unknown to what extent different genomic loci might utilize such a mechanism and under which circumstances. Here, we address whether tetramer splitting occurs in a locus-specific manner by using sequential chromatin immunoprecipitation of mononucleosomes from yeast cells containing two differentially tagged versions of H3 that are expressed "old" and "new" histones. At many genomic loci, we observe little or no nucleosomal cooccupancy of old and new H3, indicating that tetramer splitting is generally infrequent. However, cooccupancy is detected at highly active genes, which have a high rate of histone exchange. Thus, DNA replication largely results in nucleosomes bearing exclusively old or new H3-H4, thereby precluding the acquisition of new histone modifications based on preexisting modifications within the same nucleosome. In contrast, tetramer splitting, dimer exchange, and nucleosomes with mixed H3-H4 tetramers occur at highly active genes, presumably linked to rapid histone exchange associated with robust transcription.

Myogenic transcriptional activation of MyoD mediated by replication-independent histone deposition

In mammals, the canonical histone H3 and the variant H3.3 are assembled into chromatin through replication-coupled and replication-independent (RI) histone deposition pathways, respectively, to play distinct roles in chromatin function. H3.3 is largely associated with transcriptionally active regions via the activity of RI histone chaperone, HIRA. However, the precise role of the RI pathway and HIRA in active transcription and the mechanisms by which H3.3 affects gene activity are not known. In this study, we show that HIRA is an essential factor for muscle development by establishing MyoD activation in myotubes. HIRA and Asf1a, but not CHD1 or Asf1b, mediate H3.3 incorporation in the promoter and the critical upstream regulatory regions of the MyoD gene. HIRA and H3.3 are required for epigenetic transition into the more permissive chromatin structure for polymerase II recruitment to the promoter, regardless of transcription-associated covalent modification of histones. Our results suggest distinct epigenetic management of the master regulator with RI pathway components for cellular differentiation.

Regulation of angiogenesis by histone chaperone HIRA-mediated incorporation of lysine 56-acetylated histone H3.3 at chromatin domains of endothelial genes

Angiogenesis is critically dependent on endothelial cell-specific transcriptional mechanisms. However, the molecular processes that regulate chromatin domains and thereby dictate transcription of key endothelial genes are poorly understood. Here, we report that, in endothelial cells, angiogenic signal-mediated transcriptional induction of Vegfr1 (vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1) is dependent on the histone chaperone, HIRA (histone cell cycle regulation-defective homolog A). Our molecular analyses revealed that, in response to angiogenic signals, HIRA is induced in endothelial cells and mediates incorporation of lysine 56 acetylated histone H3.3 (H3acK56) at the chromatin domain of Vegfr1. HIRA-mediated incorporation of H3acK56 is a general mechanism associated with transcriptional induction of several angiogenic genes in endothelial cells. Depletion of HIRA inhibits H3acK56 incorporation and transcriptional induction of Vegfr1 and other angiogenic genes. Our functional analyses revealed that depletion of HIRA abrogates endothelial network formation on Matrigel and inhibits angiogenesis in an in vivo Matrigel plug assay. Furthermore, analysis in a laser-induced choroidal neovascularization model showed that depletion of HIRA significantly inhibits neovascularization. Our results for the first time decipher a histone chaperone (HIRA)-dependent molecular mechanism in endothelial gene regulation and indicate that histone chaperones could be new targets for angiogenesis therapy.

Excess histone levels mediate cytotoxicity via multiple mechanisms

The accumulation of excess histone proteins in cells has deleterious consequences such as genomic instability in the form of excessive chromosome loss, enhanced sensitivity to DNA damaging agents and cytotoxicity. Hence, the synthesis of histone proteins is tightly regulated at multiple steps and transcriptional as well as posttranscriptional regulation of histone proteins is well established. Additionally, we have recently demonstrated that histone protein levels are regulated posttranslationally by the DNA damage checkpoint kinase Rad53 and ubiquitin-proteasome dependent proteolysis in the budding yeast. However, the underlying mechanism/s via which excess histones exert their deleterious effects in vivo are not clear. Here we have investigated the mechanistic basis for the deleterious effects of excess histones in budding yeast. We find that the presence of excess histones saturates certain histone modifying enzymes, potentially interfering with their activities. Additionally, excess histones appear to bind non-specifically to DNA as well as RNA, which can adversely affect their metabolism. Microarray analysis revealed that upon overexpression of histone gene pairs, about 240 genes were either up or downregulated by 2-fold or more. Overall, we present evidence that excess histones are likely to mediate their cytotoxic effects via multiple mechanisms that are primarily dependent on inappropriate electrostatic interactions between the positively charged histones and diverse negatively charged molecules in the cell. Our findings help explain the basis for the existence of multiple distinct mechanisms that contribute to the tight control of histone protein levels in cells and highlight their importance in maintaining genomic stability and cell viability.

New functions for an old variant: no substitute for histone H3.3

Histone proteins often come in different variants serving specialized functions in addition to their fundamental role in packaging DNA. The metazoan histone H3.3 has been most closely associated with active transcription. Its role in histone replacement at active genes and promoters is conserved to the single histone H3 in yeast. However, recent genetic studies in flies have challenged its importance as a mark of active chromatin, and revealed unexpected insights into essential functions of H3.3 in the germline. With strikingly little amino acid sequence difference to the canonical H3, H3.3 therefore accomplishes a surprising variety of cellular and developmental processes.

[The function of histone chaperones during development]

Histone chaperones may participate the decondensation and assembly of chromatins, thus regulate gene expression. They play important roles in almost all developmental processes, such as gametogenesis, fertilization, embryogenesis, growth and senescence. In this review, we used well studied examples to illustrate various functions of histone chaperones during developmental processes. Focus is given to nucleoplasmin, CAF-1, HIRA, ASF1/CIA, and NAP1.

Transcript Elongation by RNA Polymerase II

Until recently, it was generally assumed that essentially all regulation of transcription takes place via regions adjacent to the coding region of a gene--namely promoters and enhancers--and that, after recruitment to the promoter, the polymerase simply behaves like a machine, quickly "reading the gene." However, over the past decade a revolution in this thinking has occurred, culminating in the idea that transcript elongation is extremely complex and highly regulated and, moreover, that this process significantly affects both the organization and integrity of the genome. This review addresses basic aspects of transcript elongation by RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) and how it relates to other DNA-related processes.

Recombination-induced tag exchange to track old and new proteins

The dynamic behavior of proteins is critical for cellular homeostasis. However, analyzing dynamics of proteins and protein complexes in vivo has been difficult. Here we describe recombination-induced tag exchange (RITE), a genetic method that induces a permanent epitope-tag switch in the coding sequence after a hormone-induced activation of Cre recombinase. The time-controlled tag switch provides a unique ability to detect and separate old and new proteins in time and space, which opens up opportunities to investigate the dynamic behavior of proteins. We validated the technology by determining exchange of endogenous histones in chromatin by biochemical methods and by visualizing and quantifying replacement of old by new proteasomes in single cells by microscopy. RITE is widely applicable and allows probing spatiotemporal changes in protein properties by multiple methods.

FACT and Asf1 regulate nucleosome dynamics and coactivator binding at the HO promoter

Transcriptional activators and coactivators overcome repression by chromatin, but regulation of chromatin disassembly and coactivator binding to promoters is poorly understood. Activation of the yeast HO gene follows the sequential binding of both sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins and coactivators during the cell cycle. Here, we show that the nucleosome disassembly occurs in waves both along the length of the promoter and during the cell cycle. Different chromatin modifiers are required for chromatin disassembly at different regions of the promoter, with Swi/Snf, the FACT chromatin reorganizer, and the Asf1 histone chaperone each required for nucleosome eviction at distinct promoter regions. FACT and Asf1 both bind to upstream elements of the HO promoter well before the gene is transcribed. The Swi/Snf, SAGA, and Mediator coactivators bind first to the far upstream promoter region and subsequently to a promoter proximal region, and FACT and Asf1 are both required for this coactivator re-recruitment.

Potential role of the histone chaperone, CAF-1, in transcription

The eukaryotic genome forms a chromatin structure that contains repeating nucleosome structures. Nucleosome packaging is regulated by chromatin remodeling factors such as histone chaperones. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae H3/H4 histone chaperones, CAF-1 and Asf1, regulate DNA replication and chromatin assembly. CAF-1 function is largely restricted to non-transcriptional processes in heterochromatin, whereas Asf1 regulates transcription together with another H3/H4 chaperone, HIR. This study examined the role of the yeast H3/H4 histone chaperones, Asf1, HIR, and CAF-1 in chromatin dynamics during transcription. Unexpectedly, CAF-1 was recruited to the actively transcribed region in a similar way to HIR and Asf1. In addition, the three histone chaperones genetically interacted with Set2-dependent H3 K36 methylation. Similar to histone chaperones, Set2 was required for tolerance to excess histone H3 but not to excess H2A, suggesting that CAF-1, Asf1, HIR, and Set2 function in a related pathway and target chromatin during transcription.

Untargeted tail acetylation of histones in chromatin: lessons from yeast

Dynamic acetylation of lysine residues in the amino-terminal tails of the core histones is functionally important for the regulation of diverse DNA-dependent processes in the nucleus, including replication, transcription, and DNA repair. The targeted and untargeted activities of histone lysine acetylases (KATs) and deacetylases (HDACs) both contribute to the dynamics of chromatin acetylation. While the mechanisms and functional consequences of targeted on histone acetylation are well understood, relatively little is known about untargeted histone acetylation. Here, we review the current understanding of the mechanisms by which untargeted KAT and HDAC activities modulate the acetylation state of nucleosomal histones, focusing on results obtained for H3 and H4 in budding yeast. We also highlight unresolved problems in this area, including the question of how a particular steady-state level of untargeted acetylation is set in the absence of cis-dependent mechanisms that instruct the activity of KATs and HDACs.

Evidence for gene-specific rather than transcription rate-dependent histone H3 exchange in yeast coding regions

In eukaryotic organisms, histones are dynamically exchanged independently of DNA replication. Recent reports show that different coding regions differ in their amount of replication-independent histone H3 exchange. The current paradigm is that this histone exchange variability among coding regions is a consequence of transcription rate. Here we put forward the idea that this variability might be also modulated in a gene-specific manner independently of transcription rate. To that end, we study transcription rate–independent replication-independent coding region histone H3 exchange. We term such events relative exchange. Our genome-wide analysis shows conclusively that in yeast, relative exchange is a novel consistent feature of coding regions. Outside of replication, each coding region has a characteristic pattern of histone H3 exchange that is either higher or lower than what was expected by its RNAPII transcription rate alone. Histone H3 exchange in coding regions might be a way to add or remove certain histone modifications that are important for transcription elongation. Therefore, our results that gene-specific coding region histone H3 exchange is decoupled from transcription rate might hint at a new epigenetic mechanism of transcription regulation.

During nucleosome disassembly and reassembly, evicted histones are exchanged with newly synthesized histones. Histone exchange occurs in several DNA metabolism processes, including replication, transcription, and repair. Recent reports from several labs show that replication-independent histone H3 exchange in yeast coding regions is tightly correlated with transcription rate. We have computationally shown that histone exchange variability among genes is not only a consequence of transcription rate. Instead, each coding region has a characteristic amount of replication-independent histone exchange, even when excluding the confounding effect of transcription rate. We show that this transcription rate–independent exchange, referred to as relative exchange, is a reproducible and consistent feature of the entire coding region and cannot be explained by regional effects. Next, we characterize the relations between relative exchange and a variety of histone H3 modifications, as well as the histone chaperone Asf1. Taken together, our analysis shows that gene-specific replication-independent histone H3 exchange in coding regions is mediated independently of transcription rate, thus constituting a new mechanism in epigenetic transcription regulation.

HPC2 and ubinuclein define a novel family of histone chaperones conserved throughout eukaryotes

Using sensitive protein sequence profile analyses we investigated the evolution of some histone chaperones and showed that Hir3p and Hpc2p have a much wider phyletic pattern than was previously known.

While histone chaperones have been intensely studied, the roles of components of the Hir–Asf1 histone chaperone complex such as Hir3p and Hpc2p are poorly understood. Using sensitive protein sequence profile analyses we investigated the evolution of these proteins and showed that Hir3p and Hpc2p have a much wider phyletic pattern than was previously known. We established the animal histone-deacetylase-complex-interacting proteins, CAIN/CABIN, to be orthologs of Hir3p. They contain a conserved core of around 30 TPR-like bi-helical repeats that are likely to form a super-helical scaffold. We identified a conserved domain, the HUN domain, in all Hpc2p homologs, including animal ubinuclein/yemanuclein and the recently discovered vertebrate cell-cycle regulator FLJ25778. The HUN domain has a characteristic pattern of conserved acidic residues based on which we predict that it is a previously unrecognized histone-tail-binding chaperone. By analyzing various high-throughput data sets, such as RNAi knock-downs, genetic and protein interaction maps and cell-cycle-specific gene expression data, we present evidence that Hpc2p homologs might be deployed in specific processes of chromatin dynamics relating to cell-cycle progression in vertebrates and schizogony in Plasmodium. Beyond the conserved HUN domain these proteins show extensive divergence patterns in different eukaryotic lineages. Hence, we propose that Hpc2p homologs are probably involved in recruitment of the ancient conserved histone-loading Hir–Asf1 complex to different lineage-specific chromatin reorganization processes.

H2B ubiquitylation plays a role in nucleosome dynamics during transcription elongation

The monoubiquitylation of histone H2B has been associated with transcription initiation and elongation, but its role in these processes is poorly understood. We report that H2B ubiquitylation is required for efficient reassembly of nucleosomes during RNA polymerase II (Pol II)-mediated transcription elongation in yeast. This role is carried out in cooperation with the histone chaperone Spt16, and in the absence of H2B ubiquitylation and functional Spt16, chromatin structure is not properly restored in the wake of elongating Pol II. Moreover, H2B ubiquitylation and Spt16 play a role in each other's regulation. H2B ubiquitylation is required for the stable accumulation of Spt16 at the GAL1 coding region, and Spt16 regulates the formation of ubiquitylated H2B both globally and at the GAL1 gene. These data provide a mechanism linking H2B ubiquitylation to Spt16 in the regulation of nucleosome dynamics during transcription elongation.

Analysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae histone H3 mutants reveals the role of the alphaN helix in nucleosome function

To understand the role of histone H3 sub-domains in chromatin function, 35 histone H3 tandem alanine mutants were generated and tested for their viability and sensitivity to DNA damaging agents. Among 13 non-viable H3 mutants, 6 were mapped around the alphaN helix and preceding tail region. Mutants with individual alanine substitutions in this region were viable but developed multiple sensitivities to DNA damaging agents. The only viable triple mutant, REI49-50A, in the alphaN helix region could not grow when combined with histone chaperone mutations, such as asf1Delta, cac1Delta, or hir1Delta, suggesting that this particular region is important when the histone assembly/disassembly pathway is compromised. In addition, further analysis showed that T45, E50, or F54 of the alphaN helix genetically interacted with a histone chaperone (Asf1) and transcription elongation factors (Paf1 and Hpr1). These results suggest a specific role of the H3 alphaN helix in histone dynamics mediated by histone chaperones, which might be important during transcription elongation.

Histone chaperones in nucleosome eviction and histone exchange

The recent two years have led to the realization that histone chaperones contribute to the delicate balance between nucleosome assembly and re-assembly during transcription, and may in fact be involved as much in histone eviction as they are in chromatin assembly. Recent structural studies (in particular, the structure of an Asf1-H3/H4 complex) have suggested mechanisms by which this may be accomplished. The incorporation of various histone variants into nucleosomes has diverse effects on nucleosome structure, stability, and the ability of nucleosomal arrays to condense into chromatin higher order structures. It is likely that these seemingly independent ways to modify chromatin structure are interdependent.

UNC-85, a C. elegans homolog of the histone chaperone Asf1, functions in post-embryonic neuroblast replication

Normal animal development requires accurate cell divisions, not only in the early stages of rapid embryonic cleavages, but also in later developmental stages. The Caenorhabditis elegans unc-85 gene is implicated only in cell divisions that occur post-embryonically, primarily in terminal neuronal lineages. Variable post-embryonic cell division failures in ventral cord motoneuron precursors result in uncoordinated locomotion of unc-85 mutant larvae by the second larval stage. These neuroblast cell division failures often result in unequally sized daughter nuclei, and sometimes in nuclear fusions. Using a combination of conventional mapping techniques and microarray analysis, we cloned the unc-85 gene, and find that it encodes one of two C. elegans homologs of the yeast Anti-silencing function 1 (Asf1) histone chaperone. The unc-85 gene is expressed in replicating cells throughout development, and the protein is localized in nuclei. Examination of null mutants confirms that embryonic neuroblast cell divisions occur normally, but post-embryonic neuroblast cell divisions fail. Analysis of the DNA content of the mutant neurons indicates that defective replication in post-embryonic neuroblasts gives rise to ventral cord neurons with an average DNA content of approximately 2.5 n. We conclude that UNC-85 functions in post-embryonic DNA replication in ventral cord motor neuron precursors.