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Fitzgerald B, Connolly KA, Cui C, Fagerberg E, Mariuzza DL, Hornick NI, Foster GG, William I, Cheung JF, Joshi NS. A mouse model for the study of anti-tumor T cell responses in Kras-driven lung adenocarcinoma. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2021; 1:100080. [PMID: 34632444 PMCID: PMC8500377 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2021.100080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Kras-driven lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is the most common lung cancer. A significant fraction of patients with Kras-driven LUAD respond to immunotherapy, but mechanistic studies of immune responses against LUAD have been limited because of a lack of immunotherapy-responsive models. We report the development of the immunogenic KP × NINJA (inversion inducible joined neoantigen) (KP-NINJA) LUAD model. This model allows temporal uncoupling of antigen and tumor induction, which allows one to wait until after infection-induced inflammation has subsided to induce neoantigen expression by tumors. Neoantigen expression is restricted to EPCAM+ cells in the lung and expression of neoantigen was more consistent between tumors than when neoantigens were encoded on lentiviruses. Moreover, tumors were infiltrated by tumor-specific CD8 T cells. Finally, LUAD cell lines derived from KP-NINJA mice were immunogenic and responded to immune checkpoint therapy (anti-PD1 and anti-CTLA4), providing means for future studies into the immunobiology of therapeutic responses in LUAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Fitzgerald
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Kelli A. Connolly
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Can Cui
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Eric Fagerberg
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Dylan L. Mariuzza
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Noah I. Hornick
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Gena G. Foster
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Ivana William
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Julie F. Cheung
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
| | - Nikhil S. Joshi
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
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2
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Abstract
Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women. Basic and translational breast cancer research relies heavily on experimental animal models. Ideally, such models for breast cancer should have commonality with human breast cancer in terms of tumor etiology, biological behavior, pathology, and response to therapeutics. This review introduces current progress in different breast cancer experimental animal models and analyzes their characteristics, advantages, disadvantages, and potential applications. Finally, we propose future research directions for breast cancer animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China
| | - Wei Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650204, China
| | - Ce-Shi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China.,KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research in Common Diseases, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China. E-mail:
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3
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Casey TM, Mulvey TM, Patnode TA, Dean A, Zakrzewska E, Plaut K. Mammary Epithelial Cells Treated Concurrently with TGF-α and TGF-β Exhibit Enhanced Proliferation and Death. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2016; 232:1027-40. [PMID: 17720949 DOI: 10.3181/0609-rm-218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α) stimulates while TGF-β inhibits mammary epithelial cell growth, suggesting that when cells are treated concurrently with the growth factors their combined effects would result in no net growth. However, combined treatments stimulate proliferation and cellular transformation in several cell lines. The objective of this paper was to describe the effect of long-term (6 days) concurrent TGF-α and TGF-β treatment on normal mammary epithelial cell growth pattern, morphology, and gene expression. Growth curve analysis showed that TGF-α enhanced while TGF-β suppressed growth rate until Day 4, when cells entered lag phase. However, cells treated concurrently with both growth factors exhibited a dichotomous pattern of growth marked by growth and death phases (with no intermittent lag phase). These changes in growth patterns were due to a marked induction of cell death from Day 2 (16.5%) to Day 4 (89.5%), resulting in the transition from growth to death phases, even though the combined treated cultures had significantly more ( P < 0.05) cells in S phase on Day 4. TGF-β stimulated epithelial to mesenchyme transdifferentiation (EMT) in the presence of TGF-α, as characterized by increased expression of fibronectin and changes in TGF-β receptor binding. Expression patterns of genes that regulate the cell cycle showed significant interaction between treatment and days, with TGF-β overriding TGF-α–stimulated effects on gene expression. Overall, the combined treatments were marked by enhanced rates of cellular proliferation, death, and trans-differentiation, behaviors reminiscent of breast tumors, and thus this system may serve as a good model to study breast tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Casey
- Department of Animal Science, B290 Anthony Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
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4
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Kundel DW, Stromquist E, Greene AL, Zhdankin O, Regal RR, Rose-Hellekant TA. Molecular characterizations of Nop16 in murine mammary tumors with varying levels of c-Myc. Transgenic Res 2012; 21:393-406. [PMID: 21863248 PMCID: PMC4043839 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-011-9529-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Accepted: 06/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
NOP16, also known as HSPC111, has been identified as a MYC and estrogen regulated gene in in vitro studies, hence coexpression levels were strongly correlated. Importantly, high expression of NOP16 was associated with poor clinical outcome in breast cancer patients. However, coexpression of NOP16, MYC and estrogen receptor (ESR1) varied widely in tumors and cell lines suggesting that transcriptional regulation differed according to pathological environments. The goal of this study was to determine the expression patterns of Nop16, Myc and Esr1 in murine mammary tumors with disparate histopathological and molecular features. We hypothesized that tumor environments with relatively high Myc levels would have different coexpression patterns than tumor environments with relatively low Myc levels. We measured levels of Myc and Nop16 mRNA and protein in tumors from WAP-c-myc mice that were of high grade and metastasized frequently. In contrast, Myc and Nop16 mRNA and proteins levels were significantly lower in the less aggressive tumors that developed in NRL-TGFα mice. Tumors from both mouse lines express ESR1 protein and we found that Esr1 mRNA levels correlated positively with Myc levels in both models. However, Myc and Nop16 transcript levels correlated positively only in tumors from NRL-TGFα mice. We identified prominent NOP16 protein in nuclei and less prominent staining in the cytoplasm of luminal cells of ducts and lobules from normal mammary glands as well as in hyperplasias and tumors obtained from NRL-TGFα mice. This staining pattern was reversed in tumors from WAP-c-Myc mice as nuclear staining was faint or absent and cytoplasmic staining more pronounced. In summary, the regulation of expression and localization of NOP16 varies in tumor environments with high versus low MYC levels and demonstrate the importance of stratifying clinical breast cancers based on MYC levels.
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MESH Headings
- Adenocarcinoma/genetics
- Adenocarcinoma/metabolism
- Adenocarcinoma/pathology
- Animals
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Nucleus/genetics
- Cell Nucleus/metabolism
- Cytoplasm/genetics
- Cytoplasm/metabolism
- Estrogen Receptor alpha/genetics
- Estrogen Receptor alpha/metabolism
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Hyperplasia/genetics
- Hyperplasia/metabolism
- Hyperplasia/pathology
- Mammary Glands, Animal/pathology
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neoplasm Metastasis/genetics
- Neoplasm Metastasis/pathology
- Nuclear Proteins/genetics
- Nuclear Proteins/metabolism
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-myc/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-myc/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Staining and Labeling
- Transcription, Genetic
- Transforming Growth Factor alpha/genetics
- Transforming Growth Factor alpha/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald W. Kundel
- Department of Pathology, University of Minnesota Medical School-Duluth Campus, 1035 University Drive, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
| | - Emily Stromquist
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School-Duluth Campus, 1035 University Drive, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
| | - Amy L. Greene
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Savannah, GA 31404, USA
| | - Olga Zhdankin
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School-Duluth Campus, 1035 University Drive, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
| | - Ronald R. Regal
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Minnesota Duluth, 1035 University Drive, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
| | - Teresa A. Rose-Hellekant
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School-Duluth Campus, 1035 University Drive, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
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Tumor suppressor function of Liver kinase B1 (Lkb1) is linked to regulation of epithelial integrity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:E388-97. [PMID: 22308451 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1120421109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Although loss of epithelial integrity is a hallmark of advanced cancer, it remains poorly understood whether genetic alterations corrupting this integrity causally facilitate tumorigenesis. We show that conditional deletion of tumor suppressor gene Lkb1 (Par-4) in the mammary gland compromises epithelial integrity manifested by mislocalization of cell polarity markers, lateralization of tight junctions, deterioration of desmosomes and basement membrane (BM), and hyperbranching of the mammary ductal tree. We identify the desmosomal BM remodelling serine protease Hepsin as a key factor mediating Lkb1 loss-induced structural alterations in mammary epithelium and BM fragmentation. Although loss of Lkb1 alone does not promote mammary tumorigenesis, combination of Lkb1 deficiency with oncogenic c-Myc leads to dramatic acceleration in tumor formation. The results coupling Lkb1 loss-mediated epithelial integrity defects to mislocalization of serine protease Hepsin and to oncogenic synergy with c-Myc imply that Lkb1 loss facilitates oncogenic proliferation by releasing epithelial cells from structural BM boundaries.
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6
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Ferguson RD, Novosyadlyy R, Fierz Y, Alikhani N, Sun H, Yakar S, LeRoith D. Hyperinsulinemia enhances c-Myc-mediated mammary tumor development and advances metastatic progression to the lung in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes. Breast Cancer Res 2012; 14:R8. [PMID: 22226054 PMCID: PMC3496123 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Revised: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 01/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Hyperinsulinemia, which is common in early type 2 diabetes (T2D) as a result of the chronically insulin-resistant state, has now been identified as a specific factor which can worsen breast cancer prognosis. In breast cancer, a high rate of mortality persists due to the emergence of pulmonary metastases. METHODS Using a hyperinsulinemic mouse model (MKR+/+) and the metastatic, c-Myc-transformed mammary carcinoma cell line Mvt1, we investigated how high systemic insulin levels would affect the progression of orthotopically inoculated primary mammary tumors to lung metastases. RESULTS We found that orthotopically injected Mvt1 cells gave rise to larger mammary tumors and to a significantly higher mean number of pulmonary macrometastases in hyperinsulinemic mice over a period of six weeks (hyperinsulinemic, 19.4 ± 2.7 vs. control, 4.0 ± 1.3). When Mvt1-mediated mammary tumors were allowed to develop and metastasize for approximately two weeks and were then surgically removed, hyperinsulinemic mice demonstrated a significantly higher number of lung metastases after a four-week period (hyperinsulinemic, 25.1 ± 4.6 vs. control, 7.4 ± 0.42). Similarly, when Mvt1 cells were injected intravenously, hyperinsulinemic mice demonstrated a significantly higher metastatic burden in the lung than controls after a three-week period (hyperinsulinemic, 6.0 ± 1.63 vs. control, 1.5 ± 0.68). Analysis of Mvt1 cells both in vitro and in vivo revealed a significant up-regulation of the transcription factor c-Myc under hyperinsulinemic conditions, suggesting that hyperinsulinemia may promote c-Myc signaling in breast cancer. Furthermore, insulin-lowering therapy using the beta-adrenergic receptor agonist CL-316243 reduced metastatic burden in hyperinsulinemic mice to control levels. CONCLUSIONS Hyperinsulinemia in a mouse model promotes breast cancer metastasis to the lung. Therapies to reduce insulin levels in hyperinsulinemic patients suffering from breast cancer could lessen the likelihood of metastatic progression.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blood Glucose
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/complications
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/drug therapy
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/metabolism
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/pathology
- Dioxoles/pharmacology
- Dioxoles/therapeutic use
- Female
- Hyperinsulinism/complications
- Hyperinsulinism/drug therapy
- Hyperinsulinism/metabolism
- Hyperinsulinism/pathology
- Hypoglycemic Agents/pharmacology
- Hypoglycemic Agents/therapeutic use
- Insulin/blood
- Lung Neoplasms/metabolism
- Lung Neoplasms/prevention & control
- Lung Neoplasms/secondary
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/etiology
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neoplasm Transplantation
- Phosphorylation
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/metabolism
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-myc/metabolism
- Receptor, IGF Type 1/metabolism
- Receptor, Insulin/metabolism
- Tumor Burden
- Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalyn D Ferguson
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, The Samuel Bronfman Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Ruslan Novosyadlyy
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, The Samuel Bronfman Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Yvonne Fierz
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, The Samuel Bronfman Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Nyosha Alikhani
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, The Samuel Bronfman Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Hui Sun
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, The Samuel Bronfman Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Shoshana Yakar
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, The Samuel Bronfman Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Derek LeRoith
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Bone Diseases, The Samuel Bronfman Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
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7
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Association between c-myc amplification and pathological complete response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in breast cancer. Eur J Cancer 2011; 47:1779-88. [PMID: 21741827 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2011.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2011] [Revised: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 06/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to investigate whether c-myc amplification in human breast cancer is associated with response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy comprising paclitaxel followed by 5-FU/epirubicin/cyclophosphamide (P-FEC). METHODS Tumour tissue samples were obtained before neoadjuvant chemotherapy (P-FEC) from 100 primary breast cancer patients (stage II/III). C-myc and HER2 amplification were examined by FISH, and oestrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), Ki67, and topoisomerase 2α (TOP2A) expression were examined immunohistochemically. Pathological complete response (pCR) was defined by a complete loss of tumour cells in the breast without any lymph node metastasis. RESULTS C-myc amplification was observed in 40% (40/100) of breast tumours, and was significantly associated with ER-negative tumours (23/40 for ER(-) versus 17/60 for ER(+), P=0.004), high histological grade tumours (11/18 for grade 3 versus 29/82 for grades 1+2, P=0.043) and TOP2A-positive tumours (28/51 for TOP2A(+) versus 12/49 for TOP2A(-), P=0.002). pCR rate was 20% for total patients (10.0% for ER(+) and 35.0% for ER(-)). Further, breast tumours with c-myc amplification (c-myc(+)) showed a significantly (P=0.041) higher pCR rate (12/40) than those without such amplification (c-myc(-)) (8/60). This association between pCR and c-myc amplification was observed in ER-positive tumours (4/17 for c-myc(+) versus 2/43 for c-myc(-), P=0.048) but not in ER-negative tumours (8/23 for c-myc(+) versus 6/17 for c-myc(-), P=0.973). CONCLUSION Our results suggest that c-myc amplification is significantly associated with a high pCR rate to P-FEC in breast tumours, especially in ER-positive tumours.
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Abstract
Genetically engineered mouse models have significantly contributed to our understanding of cancer biology. They have proven to be useful in validating gene functions, identifying novel cancer genes and tumor biomarkers, gaining insight into the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying tumor initiation and multistage processes of tumorigenesis, and providing better clinical models in which to test novel therapeutic strategies. However, mice still have significant limitations in modeling human cancer, including species-specific differences and inaccurate recapitulation of de novo human tumor development. Future challenges in mouse modeling include the generation of clinically relevant mouse models that recapitulate the molecular, cellular, and genomic events of human cancers and clinical response as well as the development of technologies that allow for efficient in vivo imaging and high-throughput screening in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Joo Cheon
- Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
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9
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Aliu SO, Wilmes LJ, Moasser MM, Hann BC, Li KL, Wang D, Hylton NM. MRI methods for evaluating the effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitor administration used to enhance chemotherapy efficiency in a breast tumor xenograft model. J Magn Reson Imaging 2009; 29:1071-9. [PMID: 19388114 DOI: 10.1002/jmri.21737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate whether quantitative MRI parameters are sensitive to the effects of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib and can discriminate between two different treatment protocols. MATERIALS AND METHODS Untreated mice with BT474 breast tumor xenografts were characterized in a preliminary study. Subsequently, tumor volume, apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), transendothelial permeability (K(ps)), and fractional plasma volume (fPV) were measured in three groups of mice receiving: 1) control vehicle for 10 days, or gefitinib as 2) a single daily dose for 10 days or 3) a 2-day pulsed dose. RESULTS Gefitinib treatment resulted in significant tumor growth inhibition (pulsed: 439 +/- 93; daily: 404 +/- 53; control: 891 +/- 174 mm(3), P < 0.050) and lower cell density (pulsed: 0.15 +/- 0.01, daily: 0.17 +/- 0.01, control: 0.24 +/- 0.01, P < 0.050) after 9 days. Tumor ADC increased in treated groups but decreased in controls (P > 0.050). Tumor K(ps) decreased with pulsed treatment but rebounded afterwards and increased with daily treatment (P > 0.050). Tumor fPV increased in both treated groups, decreasing afterwards with pulsed treatment (P > 0.050). CONCLUSION Quantitative MRI can provide a sensitive measure of gefitinib-induced tumor changes, potentially distinguish between treatment regimens, and may be useful for determining optimal treatment scheduling for enhancing chemotherapy delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- S O Aliu
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94107, USA.
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10
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Abstract
Progesterone is an ovarian steroid hormone that is essential for normal breast development during puberty and in preparation for lactation and breastfeeding. The actions of progesterone are primarily mediated by its high-affinity receptors, which include the classical progesterone receptor (PR)-A and -B isoforms, located in diverse tissues, including the brain, where progesterone controls reproductive behavior, and the breast and reproductive organs. Progestins are frequently prescribed for contraception or during postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy, in which progestins are combined with estrogen as a means to block estrogen-induced endometrial growth. The role of estrogen as a potent breast mitogen is undisputed, and inhibitors of the estrogen receptor and estrogen-producing enzymes (aromatases) are effective first-line cancer therapies. However, PR action in breast cancer is grossly understudied and remains controversial. Herein, we review existing evidence and discuss the challenges to defining a role for progesterone in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Lange
- University of Minnesota, Cancer Center, Department of Medicine (Hematology, Oncology & Transplantation), 420 Delaware Street SE, MMC 806, MN 55455, USA.
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11
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Abstract
Progesterone is an ovarian steroid hormone that is essential for normal breast development during puberty and in preparation for lactation. The actions of progesterone are primarily mediated by its high affinity receptors, including the classical progesterone receptor (PR) -A and -B isoforms, located in diverse tissues such as the brain where progesterone controls reproductive behavior, and the breast and reproductive organs. Progestins are frequently prescribed as contraceptives or to alleviate menopausal symptoms, wherein progestin is combined with estrogen as a means to block estrogen-induced endometrial growth. Estrogen is undisputed as a potent breast mitogen, and inhibitors of the estrogen receptor (ER) and estrogen producing enzymes (aromatases) are effective first-line cancer therapies. However, PR action in breast cancer remains controversial. Herein, we review existing evidence from in vitro and in vivo models, and discuss the challenges to defining a role for progesterone in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Lange
- University of Minnesota Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, 420 Delaware Street SE, MMC 806, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
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12
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Pochampalli MR, Bitler BG, Schroeder JA. Transforming growth factor alpha dependent cancer progression is modulated by Muc1. Cancer Res 2007; 67:6591-8. [PMID: 17638868 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-4518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor alpha (TGFalpha) is a potent inducer of cellular transformation, through its binding and activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Previous studies in our laboratory showed that EGFR could also be affected by the glycoprotein MUC1, which inhibits ligand-stimulated degradation of EGFR in breast epithelial cell lines. To determine the effect of Muc1 expression on TGFalpha/EGFR-dependent breast transformation, we crossed the WAP-TGFalpha transgenic mouse model of breast cancer onto a Muc1-null background. We found that the loss of Muc1 expression dramatically affects mammary gland transformation and progression. Although 100% of WAP-TGFalpha/Muc1(+/+) mice form mammary gland tumors by 1 year, only 37% of WAP-TGFalpha/Muc1(-/-) form tumors by this time. This difference is also associated with a delay in onset, with a doubling of onset time observed in the WAP-TGFalpha/Muc1(-/-) compared with the WAP-TGFalpha/Muc1(+/+) mice. Analysis of signal transduction pathways revealed that activation of cyclin D1 expression is significantly suppressed in tumors derived from WAP-TGFalpha/Muc1(-/-) animals compared with those expressing Muc1. The loss of Muc1 expression also results in a significant inhibition in the formation of hyperplastic lesions during tumor progression. On the C57Bl/6 inbred background, pulmonary lesions were observed in 28 of 29 WAP-TGFalpha/Muc1(+/+) animals (including one metastatic pulmonary adenocarcinoma and multiple perivascular lymphomas), although none were detected in the WAP-TGFalpha/Muc1(-/-) animals. Together, these data indicate that Muc1 is an important modulator of TGFalpha-dependent tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamata R Pochampalli
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, 1515 North Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
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13
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Rose-Hellekant TA, Schroeder MD, Brockman JL, Zhdankin O, Bolstad R, Chen KS, Gould MN, Schuler LA, Sandgren EP. Estrogen receptor-positive mammary tumorigenesis in TGFalpha transgenic mice progresses with progesterone receptor loss. Oncogene 2007; 26:5238-46. [PMID: 17334393 PMCID: PMC2587149 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1210340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
We characterized the novel NRL-transforming growth factor alpha (NRL-TGFalpha) transgenic mouse model in which growth factor - steroid receptor interactions were explored. The NRL promoter directs transgene expression to mammary ductal and alveolar cells and is nonresponsive to estrogen manipulations in vitro and in vivo. NRL-TGFalpha mice acquire proliferative hyperplasias as well as cystic and solid tumors. Quantitative transcript analysis revealed a progressive decrease in estrogen receptor alpha (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) mRNA levels with tumorigenesis. However, ER protein was evident in all lesion types and in surrounding stromal cells using immunohistochemistry. PR protein was identified in normal epithelial cells and in very few cells of small epithelial hyperplasias, but never in stromal or tumor cells. Prophylactic ovariectomy significantly delayed tumor development and decreased incidence. Finally, while heterozygous (+/-) p53 mice did not acquire mammary lesions, p53+/- mice carrying the NRL-TGFalpha transgene developed ER negative/PR negative undifferentiated carcinomas. These data demonstrate that unregulated TGFalpha expression in the mammary gland leads to oncogenesis that is dependent on ovarian steroids early in tumorigenesis. Resulting tumors resemble a clinical phenotype of ER+/PR-, and when combined with a heterozygous p53 genotype, ER-/PR-.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Rose-Hellekant
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
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14
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Ottewell PD, Coleman RE, Holen I. From genetic abnormality to metastases: murine models of breast cancer and their use in the development of anticancer therapies. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2006; 96:101-13. [PMID: 16319986 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-005-9067-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Numerous mouse models of mammary cancer have been developed that mimic selective aspects of human disease. The use of these models has enabled preclinical chemotherapeutic, chemoprevention, and genetic therapy studies in vivo, the testing of gene delivery systems, and the identification of tumour and metastasis suppressor and inducer genes. This review has discussed the most abundantly used murine models of mammary cancer including: spontaneous tumours, chemically induced tumours, orthotopic and syngeneic tumour transplantation, injected tumours, and genetically engineered mice with a predisposition to neoplasia. Each model has been discussed with regards to its merits and limitations for investigating the genetic and phenotypic alterations involved in the human disease as well as its potential usefulness for the development of new treatment strategies. To date no single mouse model is available with the ability to replicate the entire disease process, however, existing models continue to provide invaluable insights into breast cancer induction and progression that would be impossible to obtain using in vitro models alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- P D Ottewell
- Academic Unit of Clinical Oncology, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.
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Rose-Hellekant TA, Wentworth KM, Nikolai S, Kundel DW, Sandgren EP. Mammary carcinogenesis is preceded by altered epithelial cell turnover in transforming growth factor-alpha and c-myc transgenic mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2006; 169:1821-32. [PMID: 17071603 PMCID: PMC1780202 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.050675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Identification of biomarkers that indicate an increased risk of breast cancer or that can be used as surrogates for evaluating treatment efficacy is paramount to successful disease prevention and intervention. An ideal biomarker would be identifiable before lesion development. To test the hypothesis that changes in cell turnover precede mammary carcinogenesis, we evaluated epithelial cell proliferation and apoptosis in mammary glands from transgenic mice engineered to develop mammary cancer due to expression in mammary epithelia of transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-alpha) or c-myc. In transgenic glands, before lesion development, epithelial cell turnover was enhanced overall compared with nontransgenic glands, indicating that aberrant cell turnover in normal epithelia may contribute to tumorigenesis. In addition, in tumor-containing glands, proliferation in normal epithelia was higher than in tumor-free transgenic glands, suggesting these cell populations influence one another. Finally, although c-myc glands displayed a uniformly high epithelial cell turnover regardless of age, cell turnover was reduced with aging in nontransgenic and TGF-alpha mice, indicating that some growth and death regulatory mechanisms remain intact in TGF-alpha epithelia. These observations support the evaluation of cell turnover as a biomarker of cancer risk and indicator of prevention/treatment efficacy in preclinical models and warrant validation in human breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa A Rose-Hellekant
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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16
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Chepko G, Slack R, Carbott D, Khan S, Steadman L, Dickson RB. Differential alteration of stem and other cell populations in ducts and lobules of TGFα and c-Myc transgenic mouse mammary epithelium. Tissue Cell 2005; 37:393-412. [PMID: 16137731 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2005.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2005] [Revised: 06/02/2005] [Accepted: 06/29/2005] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Genes associated with proliferation are active in stem and progenitor cells, and their over-expression can promote cancer. Two such genes, c-Myc and TGFalpha, promote morphologically dissimilar mammary tumors in transgenic mice. We investigated whether their over-expression affects population size and cell cycle activity in stem and other cell populations in non-neoplastic mammary epithelia. Results indicated that both cell population and cell cycle regulation are cell type- and microenvironment-specific. To create a tool for identifying and categorizing the five cellular phenotypes by light microscopy, we adapted previously established ultrastructural criteria. Using nulliparous MMTV-c-myc or MT-tgfalpha mice, we determined and compared the relative sizes the putative stem, progenitor and differentiated cell populations. PCNA staining was used to compare the portion of each cell population in the cell cycle. Cell population sizes were analyzed relative to: (1) their location in ducts versus lobules (microenvironment), (2) genotype, and (3) cell type. Population sizes differed significantly by genotype, depending on microenvironment (p=0.0008), by genotype, depending on cell type (p<0.0001), and by microenvironment, depending on cell type (p=0.03). The number of cycling cells was also affected by all three factors, confirming that the interplay of cell type, gene expression and three-dimensional organization are very important in tissue morphogenesis and function. We describe a structure in mammary epithelium consistent with that of a stem cell niche, and show that it is altered in MMTV-c-myc and likely altered in MT TGFalpha transgenic epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Chepko
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, NRB W 401 3970 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20057, USA.
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17
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Shen Q, Brown PH. Transgenic mouse models for the prevention of breast cancer. Mutat Res 2005; 576:93-110. [PMID: 15888345 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2004] [Revised: 10/25/2004] [Accepted: 10/27/2004] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer prevention research has made remarkable progress in the past decade. Much of this progress has come from clinical trials. However, in the future to test the many promising agents that are now available, pre-clinical models of breast cancer are needed. Such models are now available. Useful models include rat and mouse models, particularly, the genetically engineered mice (GEM). Many transgenic mouse models have been generated by manipulating growth factors and their receptors, cell cycle regulators, signal transduction pathways, cellular differentiation, oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. The transgenes are induced to express in the mouse mammary glands under the control of various transgenic promoters, which have respective characteristics in expression pattern and other biological attributes. These models are providing invaluable insight on the molecular mechanisms of breast tumorigenesis. In this review, we discuss the relative relevance of the most commonly used transgenic mouse models for breast cancer prevention studies, and provide examples of how these transgenic models can be used to conduct cancer prevention research. Due to the multi-factor, multi-step nature of breast cancer, many factors should be incorporated into a valid prevention study. However, many barriers to progress must be overcome, including access to and availability of new cancer preventive drugs, and difficulties in conducting studies of combinations of preventive agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Shen
- Breast Center, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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18
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Welm AL, Kim S, Welm BE, Bishop JM. MET and MYC cooperate in mammary tumorigenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:4324-9. [PMID: 15738393 PMCID: PMC552784 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0500470102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In human breast cancer, overexpression of the protooncogene MET is strongly associated with poor prognosis and high risk of metastasis. It stands out as a reliable prognostic indicator of survival and defines a set of tumors exclusive of those that express HER2 or hormone receptors. Studies have shown that overexpression of mutant forms of MET cause cancer in mice. However, MET mutations have not been found in human breast cancer, and the consequences of overexpression of normal MET are unknown. To investigate the role of MET and other putative oncogenes in breast cancer, we developed an experimental system that involves retroviral delivery of genes into primary mammary epithelial cells, followed by transplantation of the transduced cells into mammary fat pads. Using this approach, we found that overexpression of wild-type MET leads to the development of nonprogressive neoplasms. The lesions progressed to mammary adenocarcinoma when a second protooncogene, MYC, was overexpressed, indicating that MET and MYC cooperate in mammary tumorigenesis. Both the nonprogressive neoplasms and adenocarcinomas display characteristics consistent with transformation and expansion of mammary progenitor cells. The approach described here should provide a useful model with which to efficiently test effects of various genes on tumor development in the breast.
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MESH Headings
- Adenocarcinoma/etiology
- Adenocarcinoma/genetics
- Adenocarcinoma/metabolism
- Adenocarcinoma/pathology
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Epithelial Cells/metabolism
- Epithelial Cells/transplantation
- Female
- Gene Expression
- Genes, myc
- Genetic Vectors
- Humans
- Keratins/metabolism
- Mammary Glands, Animal/cytology
- Mammary Glands, Animal/metabolism
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/etiology
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mutation
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-met/genetics
- Proto-Oncogenes
- Retroviridae/genetics
- Stem Cells/metabolism
- Stem Cells/pathology
- Transduction, Genetic
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Affiliation(s)
- Alana L Welm
- G. W. Hooper Research Foundation and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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19
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Mikaelian I, Blades N, Churchill GA, Fancher K, Knowles BB, Eppig JT, Sundberg JP. Proteotypic classification of spontaneous and transgenic mammary neoplasms. Breast Cancer Res 2004; 6:R668-79. [PMID: 15535849 PMCID: PMC1064077 DOI: 10.1186/bcr930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2004] [Revised: 07/16/2004] [Accepted: 08/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Mammary tumors in mice are categorized by using morphologic and architectural criteria. Immunolabeling for terminal differentiation markers was compared among a variety of mouse mammary neoplasms because expression of terminal differentiation markers, and especially of keratins, provides important information on the origin of neoplastic cells and their degree of differentiation. Methods Expression patterns for terminal differentiation markers were used to characterize tumor types and to study tumor progression in transgenic mouse models of mammary neoplasia (mice overexpressing Neu (Erbb2), Hras, Myc, Notch4, SV40-TAg, Tgfa, and Wnt1), in spontaneous mammary carcinomas, and in mammary neoplasms associated with infection by the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV). Results On the basis of the expression of terminal differentiation markers, three types of neoplasm were identified: first, simple carcinomas composed exclusively of cells with a luminal phenotype are characteristic of neoplasms arising in mice transgenic for Neu, Hras, Myc, Notch4, and SV40-TAg; second, 'complex carcinomas' displaying luminal and myoepithelial differentiation are characteristic of type P tumors arising in mice transgenic for Wnt1, neoplasms arising in mice infected by the MMTV, and spontaneous adenosquamous carcinomas; and third, 'carcinomas with epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT)' are a characteristic feature of tumor progression in Hras-, Myc-, and SV40-TAg-induced mammary neoplasms and PL/J and SJL/J mouse strains, and display de novo expression of myoepithelial and mesenchymal cell markers. In sharp contrast, EMT was not detected in papillary adenocarcinomas arising in BALB/cJ mice, spontaneous adenoacanthomas, neoplasms associated with MMTV-infection, or in neoplasms arising in mice transgenic for Neu and Wnt1. Conclusions Immunohistochemical profiles of complex neoplasms are consistent with a stem cell origin, whereas simple carcinomas might originate from a cell committed to the luminal lineage. In addition, these results suggest that the initiating oncogenic events determine the morphologic features associated with cancer progression because EMT is observed only in certain types of neoplasm.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Biomarkers, Tumor/biosynthesis
- Biomarkers, Tumor/genetics
- Carcinoma/classification
- Carcinoma/genetics
- Carcinoma/metabolism
- Carcinoma/pathology
- Cell Differentiation/physiology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Disease Progression
- Epithelial Cells/pathology
- Female
- Immunohistochemistry
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/genetics
- Keratins/biosynthesis
- Keratins/genetics
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/classification
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/genetics
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C3H
- Mice, Transgenic
- Proteomics/methods
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-myc/biosynthesis
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-myc/genetics
- Wnt Proteins
- Wnt1 Protein
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20
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Kavanaugh CJ, Desai KV, Calvo A, Brown PH, Couldrey C, Lubet R, Green JE. Pre-clinical applications of transgenic mouse mammary cancer models. Transgenic Res 2002; 11:617-33. [PMID: 12509137 DOI: 10.1023/a:1021159705363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is a leading cause of cancer morbidity and mortality. Given that the majority of human breast cancers appear to be due to non-genetic factors, identifying agents and mechanisms of prevention is key to lowering the incidence of cancer. Genetically engineered mouse models of mammary cancer have been important in elucidating molecular pathways and signaling events associated with the initiation, promotion, and the progression of cancer. Since several transgenic mammary models of human breast cancer progress through well-defined cancer stages, they are useful pre-clinical systems to test the efficacy of chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agents. This review outlines several oncogenic pathways through which mammary cancer can be induced in transgenic models and describes several types of preventive and therapeutic agents that have been tested in transgenic models of mammary cancer. The effectiveness of farnesyl inhibitors, aromatase inhibitors, differentiating agents, polyamine inhibitors, anti-angiogenic inhibitors, and immunotherapeutic compounds including vaccines have been evaluated in reducing mammary cancer and tumor progression in transgenic models.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Kavanaugh
- Laboratory of Cellular Regulation and Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Institute, Building 41, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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21
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Rose-Hellekant TA, Gilchrist K, Sandgren EP. Strain background alters mammary gland lesion phenotype in transforming growth factor-alpha transgenic mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2002; 161:1439-47. [PMID: 12368216 PMCID: PMC1867309 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)64419-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Whey acidic protein (WAP)-transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha transgenic mice acquire both cancerous and noncancerous mammary lesions. For this study, we evaluated the effect of mouse strain background on the incidence, latency, and histotype of two noncancerous lesions, hyperplastic alveolar nodules (analogous to typical hyperplasias in women), and macrocysts. These lesions display characteristics of fibrocystic changes observed in breasts of women, and in both mice and humans are associated with an uncertain risk of progression to neoplasia. Virgin transgenic mice of the (C57BL/6J;SJL)F2 background developed very few hyperplastic alveolar nodules and no macrocysts. In contrast, when the WAP-TGF-alpha transgene was carried on the FVB/N strain, congenic virgin transgenic mice acquired both lesion types with approximately 100% penetrance. In the (FVB;C57BL/6J)F1 background, hyperplastic alveolar nodule incidence was reduced to approximately the nontransgenic mouse level, and macrocyst latency was increased dramatically. Crossing into C57BL/6 resulted in elimination of the macrocyst phenotype. Finally, FVB strain transgenic mammary epithelium transplanted into nontransgenic recipients of the FVB/N or (FVB;C57BL/6J)F1 backgrounds displayed macrocyst latency characteristic of the recipient, and not donor, mouse strain. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis demonstrated that, despite the difference in macrocyst incidence between (FVB;C57BL/6J)F1 and C57BL/6 virgin transgenic mice (81% versus 0%), the level of TGF-alpha expression was not different. FVB strain transgenic mice expressed only twofold more TGF-alpha than the other backgrounds. These findings indicate that C57BL/6J modifier alleles inhibit mammary lesion incidence and macrocyst latency in a semidominant manner, and that suppression of lesion development can involve host factors that are independent of mammary epithelial genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa A Rose-Hellekant
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 53706, USA
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22
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Reddy KB, McGowen R, Schuger L, Visscher D, Sheng S. Maspin expression inversely correlates with breast tumor progression in MMTV/TGF-alpha transgenic mouse model. Oncogene 2001; 20:6538-43. [PMID: 11641778 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1204796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2001] [Revised: 06/14/2001] [Accepted: 07/05/2001] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Maspin is a novel serine protease inhibitor (serpin) with tumor suppressive activity. To date, despite the mounting evidence implicating the potential diagnostic/prognostic and therapeutic value of maspin in breast and prostate carcinoma, the lack of a suitable animal model hampers the in vivo investigation on the role of maspin at different stages of tumor progression. In this study, we used MMTV/TGF-alpha transgenic mouse model to study the expression profile of maspin in mammary tumor progression. Histopathological examinations of MMTV/TGF-alpha transgenic mice revealed TGF-alpha expression leading to hyperproliferation, hyperplasia, and occasional carcinoma in mammary gland. Interestingly, when MMTV/TGF-alpha transgenic mice were breed to homozygocity, they also developed characteristic skin papillomas. Immunohistochemistry analysis of maspin expression in the breast tissues of TGF-alpha transgenic mice showed a direct correlation between down-regulation of maspin expression and tumor progression. The loss of maspin expression was concomitant with the critical transition from carcinoma in situ to invasive carcinoma. Subsequent in-situ hybridization analyses suggest that the down-regulation of maspin expression is primarily a transcriptional event. This data is consistent with the tumor suppressive role of maspin. Furthermore, our data suggests that MMTV/TGF-alpha transgenic mouse model is advantageous for in vivo evaluation of both the expression and the biological function of maspin during the slow multi-stage carcinogenesis of mammary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- K B Reddy
- Department of Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 540 East Canfield Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
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23
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Schroeder MD, Rose-Hellekant TA, Sandgren EP, Schuler LA. Dysregulation of mammary Stats 1,3 and 5 and PRL receptors by overexpression of TGFalpha. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2001; 175:173-83. [PMID: 11325527 DOI: 10.1016/s0303-7207(01)00385-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Mammary TGFalpha overexpression results in delayed involution and eventually mammary cancer in transgenic mice. We hypothesized that STATs and PRL receptors (PRLR), critical regulators of mammary function, are altered in these animals and may contribute to this phenotype. We examined these factors late in the first pregnancy (d.18) and during normal involution (d.4 post-lactation) in WAP-TGFalpha transgenic mice and non-transgenic controls. Long form PRLR mRNA in WAP-TGFalpha glands at both pregnant d.18 and d.4 post-lactation was significantly reduced compared to controls, and PRLR-S3 failed to rise during involution. Total and pTyr STAT 1,3,5a and 5b also were altered. STAT 3 was higher at both times in WAP-TGFalpha glands. STAT 5a and 5b were lower at late pregnancy, but higher post-lactation; however, pTyr(694) STAT 5 was abnormally low at both times. Thus overexpression of TGFalpha has direct or indirect effects on both STATs and PRL responsiveness in vivo, which may reflect mechanisms of TGFalpha-induced mammary epithelial abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Schroeder
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, 2015 Linden Drive West, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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24
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Abstract
In March 1999, a panel of distinguished pathologists was convened by the U.S. National Institutes of Health Breast Cancer Think Tank to develop a classification of breast lesions based on their examination of 39 models of Genetically Engineered Mice (GEM) associated mouse mammary cancer (Cardiff et al., 2000). The meeting, in Annapolis, Maryland, resulted in a published summary report from the Pathology Panel (Cardiff et al., 2000). The Annapolis consensus report, developed from the Panel's deliberations, pointed out that the mammary lesions of GEM were different from most (spontaneous) mouse mammary tumors and could be divided into three distinct categories: (1) lesions that resemble those found in spontaneous mouse mammary tumorigenesis, (2) lesions that have a unique "signature" tumor phenotype that was specific for the transgene, and (3) lesions that resemble those found in human breast diseases (Cardiff et al., 2000). This review emphasizes the proposed nomenclature and the differences between the models and human breast cancer with the intention of stimulating discussion and the development of new models.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Cardiff
- Department of Pathology and University of California-Davis Center for Comparative Medicine, County Road 98 and Hutchison Drive, UC-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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25
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Hynes NE, Lane HA. Myc and mammary cancer: Myc is a downstream effector of the ErbB2 receptor tyrosine kinase. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2001; 6:141-50. [PMID: 11467449 DOI: 10.1023/a:1009528918064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The proto-oncogene c-myc encodes a transcription factor which plays a major role in the regulation of normal cellular proliferation and is aberrantly expressed in many breast tumors. In a normal cell Myc expression levels are tightly regulated being subject to many layers of control. Errantly expressed Myc collaborates with other oncogenes to promote transformation. In this review we will focus on the association between abnormal Myc expression and mammary cancer. In particular, we will discuss the role of Myc as a downstream effector of the ErbB2 receptor tyrosine kinase which is overexpressed and constitutively activate in many mammary tumors. The cooperation between Myc and ErbB2 in transformation will be discussed in relation to clinical studies on Myc in human cancer and with consideration of transgenic models of Myc-induced mammary cancer. Data from our laboratory will be presented showing that deregulated ErbB2 activity strongly stimulates cytoplasmic signaling pathways which in turn impinge on Myc at multiple levels causing its deregulated expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- N E Hynes
- Friedrich Miescher Institute, Basel, Switzerland.
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26
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Blackshear PE. Genetically engineered rodent models of mammary gland carcinogenesis: an overview. Toxicol Pathol 2001; 29:105-16. [PMID: 11215674 DOI: 10.1080/019262301301418919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is a multifactorial disease that develops as a result of interactions among genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Multiple genetic derangements are believed to be involved in the pathogenesis of breast cancer, including the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes and/or the disregulation of proto-oncogenes. Age, hormones, and environmental factors further influence these genetic derangements. Spontaneous and chemically induced animal models of breast cancer have been limited in their usefulness. The advent of targeted gene mutations has allowed for a more specific exploration of the pathogenesis of breast cancer by creating mouse models that mimic single or multiple gene alterations found in human mammary tumors. The genes targeted in these models include mouse mammary tumor integration sites and genes that encode for growth regulators, signal transduction proteins, cell cycle proteins, and cell matrix proteinases. In this review, I summarize tumor morphology and the relevance of each model to the pathogenesis and progression of human breast cancer. These models have great potential for elucidating the multistep process of mammary gland carcinogenesis and for contributing to the identification of novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Blackshear
- Schering-Plough Research Institute, Lafayette, New Jersey 07848, USA.
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