1
|
Methods matter in repeating ocean acidification studies. Nature 2020; 586:E20-E24. [DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2803-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
2
|
Parsons DM, Bian R, McKenzie JR, McMahon SJ, Pether S, Munday PL. An uncertain future: Effects of ocean acidification and elevated temperature on a New Zealand snapper (Chrysophrys auratus) population. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 161:105089. [PMID: 32738554 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic CO2 emissions are warming and acidifying Earth's oceans, which is likely to lead to a variety of effects on marine ecosystems. Fish populations will be vulnerable to this change, and there is now substantial evidence of the direct and indirect effects of climate change on fish. There is also a growing effort to conceptualise the effects of climate change on fish within population models. In the present study knowledge about the response of New Zealand snapper to warming and acidification was incorporated within a stock assessment model. Specifically, a previous tank experiment on larval snapper suggested both positive and negative effects, and otolith increment analysis on wild snapper indicated that growth may initially increase, followed by a potential decline as temperatures continue to warm. As a result of this uncertainty, sensitivity analysis was performed by varying average virgin recruitment (R0) by ±30%, adult growth by ±6%, but adjusting mean size at recruitment by +48% as we had better evidence for this increase. Overall adjustments to R0 had the biggest impact on the future yield (at a management target of 40% of an unfished population) of the Hauraki Gulf snapper fishery. The most negative scenario suggested a 29% decrease in fishery yield, while the most optimistic scenario suggested a 44% increase. While largely uncertain, these results provide some scope for predicting future impacts on the snapper fishery. Given that snapper is a species where the response to climate change has been specifically investigated, increasing uncertainty in a future where climate change and other stressors interact in complex and unpredictable ways is likely to be an important consideration for the management of nearly all fish populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Darren M Parsons
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Auckland, New Zealand; Institute of Marine Science, University of Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Richard Bian
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jeremy R McKenzie
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Shannon J McMahon
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Steven Pether
- Northland Marine Research Centre, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Ruakaka, New Zealand
| | - Philip L Munday
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Johnston NK, Campbell JE, Paul VJ, Hay ME. Effects of future climate on coral-coral competition. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0235465. [PMID: 32790686 PMCID: PMC7425956 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0235465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
As carbon dioxide (CO2) levels increase, coral reefs and other marine systems will be affected by the joint stressors of ocean acidification (OA) and warming. The effects of these two stressors on coral physiology are relatively well studied, but their impact on biotic interactions between corals are poorly understood. While coral-coral interactions are less common on modern reefs, it is important to document the nature of these interactions to better inform restoration strategies in the face of climate change. Using a mesocosm study, we evaluated whether the combined effects of ocean acidification and warming alter the competitive interactions between the common coral Porites astreoides and two other mounding corals (Montastraea cavernosa or Orbicella faveolata) common in the Caribbean. After 7 days of direct contact, P. astreoides suppressed the photosynthetic potential of M. cavernosa by 100% in areas of contact under both present (~28.5°C and ~400 μatm pCO2) and predicted future (~30.0°C and ~1000 μatm pCO2) conditions. In contrast, under present conditions M. cavernosa reduced the photosynthetic potential of P. astreoides by only 38% in areas of contact, while under future conditions reduction was 100%. A similar pattern occurred between P. astreoides and O. faveolata at day 7 post contact, but by day 14, each coral had reduced the photosynthetic potential of the other by 100% at the point of contact, and O. faveolata was generating larger lesions on P. astreoides than the reverse. In the absence of competition, OA and warming did not affect the photosynthetic potential of any coral. These results suggest that OA and warming can alter the severity of initial coral-coral interactions, with potential cascading effects due to corals serving as foundation species on coral reefs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole K. Johnston
- School of Biological Sciences and Aquatic Chemical Ecology Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Justin E. Campbell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Environment, Florida International University, North Miami, FL, United States of America
- Smithsonian Marine Station, Ft. Pierce, FL, United States of America
| | - Valerie J. Paul
- Smithsonian Marine Station, Ft. Pierce, FL, United States of America
| | - Mark E. Hay
- School of Biological Sciences and Aquatic Chemical Ecology Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Brown NEM, Bernhardt JR, Harley CDG. Energetic context determines species and community responses to ocean acidification. Ecology 2020; 101:e03073. [DOI: 10.1002/ecy.3073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Norah E. M. Brown
- Department of Zoology University of British Columbia Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia Canada
| | - Joey R. Bernhardt
- Department of Zoology University of British Columbia Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia Canada
| | - Christopher D. G. Harley
- Department of Zoology University of British Columbia Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia Canada
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries University of British Columbia Vancouver V6T 1Z4 British Columbia Canada
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Lauchlan SS, Burckard G, Cassey P, Nagelkerken I. Climate change erodes competitive hierarchies among native, alien and range-extending crabs. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 151:104777. [PMID: 31548093 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2019.104777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Global warming and ocean acidification alter a wide range of animal behaviours, yet the effect on resource competition among species is poorly understood. We tested whether the combination of moderate levels of ocean acidification and warming altered the feeding success of co-occurring native, alien, and range-extending crab species, and how these changes affected their hierarchical dominance. Under contemporary conditions the range-extending species spent more time feeding, than the alien and the native species. Under conditions simulating future climate there was no difference in the proportion of time spent feeding among the three species. These behavioural changes translated to alterations in their dominance hierarchy (based on feeding success) with the most dominant species under present day conditions becoming less dominant under future conditions, and vice versa for the least dominant species. While empirical studies have predicted either reversal or strengthening of hierarchical dominance in animal species, we suggest that even moderate increases in ocean temperature and acidification can drive a homogenisation in behavioural competitiveness, eroding dominance differences among species that are linked to fitness-related traits in nature and hence important for their population persistence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shannon S Lauchlan
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences and the Environment Institute, DX 650 418, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Gauthier Burckard
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences and the Environment Institute, DX 650 418, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Phillip Cassey
- Centre for Applied Conservation Science, School of Biological Sciences and the Environment Institute, DX 650 418, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Ivan Nagelkerken
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences and the Environment Institute, DX 650 418, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
The cost of carryover effects in a changing environment: context-dependent benefits of a behavioural phenotype in a coral reef fish. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
7
|
Domenici P, Allan BJM, Lefrançois C, McCormick MI. The effect of climate change on the escape kinematics and performance of fishes: implications for future predator-prey interactions. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 7:coz078. [PMID: 31723432 PMCID: PMC6839432 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coz078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Climate change can have a pronounced impact on the physiology and behaviour of fishes. Notably, many climate change stressors, such as global warming, hypoxia and ocean acidification (OA), have been shown to alter the kinematics of predator-prey interactions in fishes, with potential effects at ecological levels. Here, we review the main effects of each of these stressors on fish escape responses using an integrative approach that encompasses behavioural and kinematic variables. Elevated temperature was shown to affect many components of the escape response, including escape latencies, kinematics and maximum swimming performance, while the main effect of hypoxia was on escape responsiveness and directionality. OA had a negative effect on the escape response of juvenile fish by decreasing their directionality, responsiveness and locomotor performance, although some studies show no effect of acidification. The few studies that have explored the effects of multiple stressors show that temperature tends to have a stronger effect on escape performance than OA. Overall, the effects of climate change on escape responses may occur through decreased muscle performance and/or an interference with brain and sensory functions. In all of these cases, since the escape response is a behaviour directly related to survival, these effects are likely to be fundamental drivers of changes in marine communities. The overall future impact of these stressors is discussed by including their potential effects on predator attack behaviour, thereby allowing the development of potential future scenarios for predator-prey interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Domenici
- CNR-IAS, Oristano, 09170 Italy
- Corresponding author: CNR-IAS, Oristano 09170, Italy.
| | - Bridie J M Allan
- Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | | | - Mark I McCormick
- Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ecological effects of elevated CO2 on marine and freshwater fishes: From individual to community effects. FISH PHYSIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.fp.2019.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
|
9
|
Nagelkerken I, Goldenberg SU, Coni EOC, Connell SD. Microhabitat change alters abundances of competing species and decreases species richness under ocean acidification. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 645:615-622. [PMID: 30029136 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Niche segregation allows competing species to capture resources in contrasting ways so they can co-exist and maintain diversity, yet global change is simplifying ecosystems and associated niche diversity. Whether climate perturbations alter niche occupancy among co-occurring species and affect species diversity is a key, but unanswered question. Using CO2 vents as natural analogues of ocean acidification, we show that competing fish species with overlapping diets are partially segregated across microhabitat niches and differently-orientated substrata under ambient CO2 conditions. Under elevated CO2, benthic microhabitats experienced a significant increase in non-calcifying turf and fleshy algae but a sharp reduction in calcareous algae. The increased availability of turf and fleshy algae supported increased densities of a competitively dominant species, whilst the reduction in calcifying algal microhabitats decreased densities of several subordinate species. The change in microhabitat availability also drove an increased overlap in microhabitat use among competing fishes at the vents, associated with a reduced fish species richness on horizontal substrates. We conclude that loss of preferred microhabitat niches, exacerbated by population proliferation of competitively dominant species, can drive population losses of less common and subordinate species, and reduce local species richness. The indirect effects of ocean acidification on microhabitat availability can therefore impair maintenance of species populations, and drive changes in local community and biodiversity patterns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Nagelkerken
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences, and The Environment Institute, DX 650 418, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.
| | - Silvan U Goldenberg
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences, and The Environment Institute, DX 650 418, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Ericka O C Coni
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences, and The Environment Institute, DX 650 418, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Sean D Connell
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences, and The Environment Institute, DX 650 418, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Eurich JG, McCormick MI, Jones GP. Direct and indirect effects of interspecific competition in a highly partitioned guild of reef fishes. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob G. Eurich
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture College of Science and Engineering James Cook University Townsville Queensland 4811 Australia
| | - Mark I. McCormick
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture College of Science and Engineering James Cook University Townsville Queensland 4811 Australia
| | - Geoffrey P. Jones
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture College of Science and Engineering James Cook University Townsville Queensland 4811 Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Raby GD, Sundin J, Jutfelt F, Cooke SJ, Clark TD. Exposure to elevated carbon dioxide does not impair short-term swimming behaviour or shelter-seeking in a predatory coral-reef fish. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2018; 93:138-142. [PMID: 29931691 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Adult bluespotted rockcod Cephalopholis cyanostigma, a coral-reef grouper, were acclimated to either ambient (mean ± s.d. 406 ± 21 μatm; 1 atmos = 101325 Pa) or high pCO2 (945 ± 116 μatm) conditions in a laboratory for 8-9 days, then released at the water surface directly above a reef (depth c. 5 m) and followed on video camera (for 191 ± 21 s) by scuba divers until they sought cover in the reef. No differences were detected between groups in any of the six measured variables, which included the time fish spent immobile after release, tail beat frequency during swimming and the time required to locate and enter the protective shelter of the reef.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Graham D Raby
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, Canada
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Josefin Sundin
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Jutfelt
- Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Steven J Cooke
- Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Timothy D Clark
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Allan BJM, Domenici P, Watson SA, Munday PL, McCormick MI. Warming has a greater effect than elevated CO 2 on predator-prey interactions in coral reef fish. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:rspb.2017.0784. [PMID: 28659450 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.0784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocean acidification and warming, driven by anthropogenic CO2 emissions, are considered to be among the greatest threats facing marine organisms. While each stressor in isolation has been studied extensively, there has been less focus on their combined effects, which could impact key ecological processes. We tested the independent and combined effects of short-term exposure to elevated CO2 and temperature on the predator-prey interactions of a common pair of coral reef fishes (Pomacentrus wardi and its predator, Pseudochromis fuscus). We found that predator success increased following independent exposure to high temperature and elevated CO2 Overall, high temperature had an overwhelming effect on the escape behaviour of the prey compared with the combined exposure to elevated CO2 and high temperature or the independent effect of elevated CO2 Exposure to high temperatures led to an increase in attack and predation rates. By contrast, we observed little influence of elevated CO2 on the behaviour of the predator, suggesting that the attack behaviour of P. fuscus was robust to this environmental change. This is the first study to address how the kinematics and swimming performance at the basis of predator-prey interactions may change in response to concurrent exposure to elevated CO2 and high temperatures and represents an important step to forecasting the responses of interacting species to climate change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bridie J M Allan
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia .,Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture, College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Paolo Domenici
- CNR-IAMC, Istituto per l'Ambiente Marino Costiero, Località Sa Mardini, 09170 Torregrande (Oristano), Italy
| | - Sue Ann Watson
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Philip L Munday
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Mark I McCormick
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia.,Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture, College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Lopez LK, Davis AR, Wong MYL. Behavioral interactions under multiple stressors: temperature and salinity mediate aggression between an invasive and a native fish. Biol Invasions 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-017-1552-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
14
|
Jarrold MD, Humphrey C, McCormick MI, Munday PL. Diel CO 2 cycles reduce severity of behavioural abnormalities in coral reef fish under ocean acidification. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10153. [PMID: 28860652 PMCID: PMC5578974 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10378-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated CO2 levels associated with ocean acidification (OA) have been shown to alter behavioural responses in coral reef fishes. However, all studies to date have used stable pCO2 treatments, not considering the substantial diel pCO2 variation that occurs in shallow reef habitats. Here, we reared juvenile damselfish, Acanthochromis polyacanthus, and clownfish, Amphiprion percula, at stable and diel cycling pCO2 treatments in two experiments. As expected, absolute lateralization of A. polyacanthus and response to predator cue of Am. percula were negatively affected in fish reared at stable, elevated pCO2 in both experiments. However, diel pCO2 fluctuations reduced the negative effects of OA on behaviour. Importantly, in experiment two, behavioural abnormalities that were present in fish reared at stable 750 µatm CO2 were largely absent in fish reared at 750 ± 300 µatm CO2. Overall, we show that diel pCO2 cycles can substantially reduce the severity of behavioural abnormalities caused by elevated CO2. Thus, past studies may have over-estimated the impacts of OA on the behavioural performance of coral reef fishes. Furthermore, our results suggest that diel pCO2 cycles will delay the onset of behavioural abnormalities in natural populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Jarrold
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia. .,ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.
| | - Craig Humphrey
- National Sea Simulator, Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville, Queensland, 4810, Australia
| | - Mark I McCormick
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
| | - Philip L Munday
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Ferrari MC, McCormick MI, Watson SA, Meekan MG, Munday PL, Chivers DP. Predation in High CO2 Waters: Prey Fish from High-Risk Environments are Less Susceptible to Ocean Acidification. Integr Comp Biol 2017; 57:55-62. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
|
16
|
Species Interactions Drive Fish Biodiversity Loss in a High-CO 2 World. Curr Biol 2017; 27:2177-2184.e4. [PMID: 28690109 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Accelerating climate change is eroding the functioning and stability of ecosystems by weakening the interactions among species that stabilize biological communities against change [1]. A key challenge to forecasting the future of ecosystems centers on how to extrapolate results from short-term, single-species studies to community-level responses that are mediated by key mechanisms such as competition, resource availability (bottom-up control), and predation (top-down control) [2]. We used CO2 vents as potential analogs of ocean acidification combined with in situ experiments to test current predictions of fish biodiversity loss and community change due to elevated CO2 [3] and to elucidate the potential mechanisms that drive such change. We show that high risk-taking behavior and competitive strength, combined with resource enrichment and collapse of predator populations, fostered already common species, enabling them to double their populations under acidified conditions. However, the release of these competitive dominants from predator control led to suppression of less common and subordinate competitors that did not benefit from resource enrichment and reduced predation. As a result, local biodiversity was lost and novel fish community compositions were created under elevated CO2. Our study identifies the species interactions most affected by ocean acidification, revealing potential sources of natural selection. We also reveal how diminished predator abundances can have cascading effects on local species diversity, mediated by complex species interactions. Reduced overfishing of predators could therefore act as a key action to stall diversity loss and ecosystem change in a high-CO2 world. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
Collapse
|
17
|
Horwitz R, Hoogenboom MO, Fine M. Spatial competition dynamics between reef corals under ocean acidification. Sci Rep 2017; 7:40288. [PMID: 28067281 PMCID: PMC5220319 DOI: 10.1038/srep40288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change, including ocean acidification (OA), represents a major threat to coral-reef ecosystems. Although previous experiments have shown that OA can negatively affect the fitness of reef corals, these have not included the long-term effects of competition for space on coral growth rates. Our multispecies year-long study subjected reef-building corals from the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea) to competitive interactions under present-day ocean pH (pH 8.1) and predicted end-of-century ocean pH (pH 7.6). Results showed coral growth is significantly impeded by OA under intraspecific competition for five out of six study species. Reduced growth from OA, however, is negligible when growth is already suppressed in the presence of interspecific competition. Using a spatial competition model, our analysis indicates shifts in the competitive hierarchy and a decrease in overall coral cover under lowered pH. Collectively, our case study demonstrates how modified competitive performance under increasing OA will in all likelihood change the composition, structure and functionality of reef coral communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rael Horwitz
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel.,The Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences, Eilat 88103, Israel
| | - Mia O Hoogenboom
- College of Science and Engineering and ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Maoz Fine
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel.,The Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences, Eilat 88103, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Harborne AR, Rogers A, Bozec YM, Mumby PJ. Multiple Stressors and the Functioning of Coral Reefs. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2017; 9:445-468. [PMID: 27575738 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-010816-060551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Coral reefs provide critical services to coastal communities, and these services rely on ecosystem functions threatened by stressors. By summarizing the threats to the functioning of reefs from fishing, climate change, and decreasing water quality, we highlight that these stressors have multiple, conflicting effects on functionally similar groups of species and their interactions, and that the overall effects are often uncertain because of a lack of data or variability among taxa. The direct effects of stressors on links among functional groups, such as predator-prey interactions, are particularly uncertain. Using qualitative modeling, we demonstrate that this uncertainty of stressor impacts on functional groups (whether they are positive, negative, or neutral) can have significant effects on models of ecosystem stability, and reducing uncertainty is vital for understanding changes to reef functioning. This review also provides guidance for future models of reef functioning, which should include interactions among functional groups and the cumulative effect of stressors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alastair R Harborne
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, North Miami, Florida 33181;
- Marine Spatial Ecology Lab and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; , ,
| | - Alice Rogers
- Marine Spatial Ecology Lab and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; , ,
| | - Yves-Marie Bozec
- Marine Spatial Ecology Lab and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; , ,
| | - Peter J Mumby
- Marine Spatial Ecology Lab and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; , ,
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Munday PL, Welch MJ, Allan BJM, Watson SA, McMahon SJ, McCormick MI. Effects of elevated CO 2 on predator avoidance behaviour by reef fishes is not altered by experimental test water. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2501. [PMID: 27761317 PMCID: PMC5068342 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Pioneering studies into the effects of elevated CO2 on the behaviour of reef fishes often tested high-CO2 reared fish using control water in the test arena. While subsequent studies using rearing treatment water (control or high CO2) in the test arena have confirmed the effects of high CO2 on a range of reef fish behaviours, a further investigation into the use of different test water in the experimental arena is warranted. Here, we used a fully factorial design to test the effect of rearing treatment water (control or high CO2) and experimental test water (control or high CO2) on antipredator responses of larval reef fishes. We tested antipredator behaviour in larval clownfish Amphiprion percula and ambon damselfish Pomacentrus amboinensis, two species that have been used in previous high CO2 experiments. Specifically, we tested if: (1) using control or high CO2 water in a two channel flume influenced the response of larval clownfish to predator odour; and (2) using control or high CO2 water in the test arena influenced the escape response of larval damselfish to a startle stimulus. Finally, (3) because the effects of high CO2 on fish behaviour appear to be caused by altered function of the GABA-A neurotransmitter we tested if antipredator behaviours were restored in clownfish treated with a GABA antagonist (gabazine) in high CO2 water. Larval clownfish reared from hatching in control water (496 µatm) strongly avoided predator cue whereas larval clownfish reared from hatching in high CO2 (1,022 µatm) were attracted to the predator cue, as has been reported in previous studies. There was no effect on fish responses of using either control or high CO2 water in the flume. Larval damselfish reared for four days in high CO2 (1,051 µatm) exhibited a slower response to a startle stimulus and slower escape speed compared with fish reared in control conditions (464 µatm). There was no effect of test water on escape responses. Treatment of high-CO2 reared clownfish with 4 mg l−1 gabazine in high CO2 seawater restored the normal response to predator odour, as has been previously reported with fish tested in control water. Our results show that using control water in the experimental trials did not influence the results of previous studies on antipredator behaviour of reef fishes and also supports the results of novel experiments conducted in natural reef habitat at ambient CO2 levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philip L Munday
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University , Townsville , Queensland , Australia
| | - Megan J Welch
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia; College of Marine and Environmental Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Bridie J M Allan
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia; College of Marine and Environmental Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sue-Ann Watson
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University , Townsville , Queensland , Australia
| | - Shannon J McMahon
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia; College of Marine and Environmental Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mark I McCormick
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia; College of Marine and Environmental Science, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Risk assessment and predator learning in a changing world: understanding the impacts of coral reef degradation. Sci Rep 2016; 6:32542. [PMID: 27611870 PMCID: PMC5017198 DOI: 10.1038/srep32542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Habitat degradation is among the top drivers of the loss of global biodiversity. This problem is particularly acute in coral reef system. Here we investigated whether coral degradation influences predator risk assessment and learning for damselfish. When in a live coral environment, Ambon damselfish were able to learn the identity of an unknown predator upon exposure to damselfish alarm cues combined with predator odour and were able to socially transmit this learned recognition to naïve conspecifics. However, in the presence of dead coral water, damselfish failed to learn to recognize the predator through alarm cue conditioning and hence could not transmit the information socially. Unlike alarm cues of Ambon damselfish that appear to be rendered unusable in degraded coral habitats, alarm cues of Nagasaki damselfish remain viable in this same environment. Nagasaki damselfish were able to learn predators through conditioning with alarm cues in degraded habitats and subsequently transmit the information socially to Ambon damselfish. Predator-prey dynamics may be profoundly affected as habitat degradation proceeds; the success of one species that appears to have compromised predation assessment and learning, may find itself reliant on other species that are seemingly unaffected by the same degree of habitat degradation.
Collapse
|
21
|
Dodd LF, Grabowski JH, Piehler MF, Westfield I, Ries JB. Ocean acidification impairs crab foraging behaviour. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:rspb.2015.0333. [PMID: 26108629 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic elevation of atmospheric CO2 is driving global-scale ocean acidification, which consequently influences calcification rates of many marine invertebrates and potentially alters their susceptibility to predation. Ocean acidification may also impair an organism's ability to process environmental and biological cues. These counteracting impacts make it challenging to predict how acidification will alter species interactions and community structure. To examine effects of acidification on consumptive and behavioural interactions between mud crabs (Panopeus herbstii) and oysters (Crassostrea virginica), oysters were reared with and without caged crabs for 71 days at three pCO2 levels. During subsequent predation trials, acidification reduced prey consumption, handling time and duration of unsuccessful predation attempt. These negative effects of ocean acidification on crab foraging behaviour more than offset any benefit to crabs resulting from a reduction in the net rate of oyster calcification. These findings reveal that efforts to evaluate how acidification will alter marine food webs should include quantifying impacts on both calcification rates and animal behaviour.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luke F Dodd
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 3431 Arendell Street, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA
| | - Jonathan H Grabowski
- Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, 430 Nahant Road, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
| | - Michael F Piehler
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 3431 Arendell Street, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA
| | - Isaac Westfield
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 3431 Arendell Street, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, 430 Nahant Road, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
| | - Justin B Ries
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 3431 Arendell Street, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, 430 Nahant Road, Nahant, MA 01908, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Nagelkerken I, Munday PL. Animal behaviour shapes the ecological effects of ocean acidification and warming: moving from individual to community-level responses. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2016; 22:974-89. [PMID: 26700211 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Biological communities are shaped by complex interactions between organisms and their environment as well as interactions with other species. Humans are rapidly changing the marine environment through increasing greenhouse gas emissions, resulting in ocean warming and acidification. The first response by animals to environmental change is predominantly through modification of their behaviour, which in turn affects species interactions and ecological processes. Yet, many climate change studies ignore animal behaviour. Furthermore, our current knowledge of how global change alters animal behaviour is mostly restricted to single species, life phases and stressors, leading to an incomplete view of how coinciding climate stressors can affect the ecological interactions that structure biological communities. Here, we first review studies on the effects of warming and acidification on the behaviour of marine animals. We demonstrate how pervasive the effects of global change are on a wide range of critical behaviours that determine the persistence of species and their success in ecological communities. We then evaluate several approaches to studying the ecological effects of warming and acidification, and identify knowledge gaps that need to be filled, to better understand how global change will affect marine populations and communities through altered animal behaviours. Our review provides a synthesis of the far-reaching consequences that behavioural changes could have for marine ecosystems in a rapidly changing environment. Without considering the pervasive effects of climate change on animal behaviour we will limit our ability to forecast the impacts of ocean change and provide insights that can aid management strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Nagelkerken
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, School of Biological Sciences and The Environment Institute, The University of Adelaide, DX 650 418, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Philip L Munday
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld, 4811, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Bonin MC, Boström-Einarsson L, Munday PL, Jones GP. The Prevalence and Importance of Competition Among Coral Reef Fishes. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2015. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-112414-054413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Although competition is recognized as a core ecological process, its prevalence and importance in coral reef fish communities have been debated. Here we compile and synthesize the results of 173 experimental tests of competition from 72 publications. We show that evidence for competition is pervasive both within and between species, with 72% of intraspecific tests and 56% of interspecific tests demonstrating a demographically significant consequence of competition (e.g., a decrease in recruitment, survival, growth, or fecundity). We highlight several factors that can interact with the effects of competition and make it more difficult to detect in field experiments. In light of this evidence, we discuss the role of competition in shaping coral reef fish communities and competition's status as one of several processes that contribute to species coexistence. Finally, we consider some of the complex ways that climate change may influence competition, and we provide suggestions for future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mary C. Bonin
- Australian Research Council Center of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Lisa Boström-Einarsson
- Australian Research Council Center of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Philip L. Munday
- Australian Research Council Center of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Geoffrey P. Jones
- Australian Research Council Center of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Gaylord B, Kroeker KJ, Sunday JM, Anderson KM, Barry JP, Brown NE, Connell SD, Dupont S, Fabricius KE, Hall-Spencer JH, Klinger T, Milazzo M, Munday PL, Russell BD, Sanford E, Schreiber SJ, Thiyagarajan V, Vaughan MLH, Widdicombe S, Harley CDG. Ocean acidification through the lens of ecological theory. Ecology 2015; 96:3-15. [PMID: 26236884 DOI: 10.1890/14-0802.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ocean acidification, chemical changes to the carbonate system of seawater, is emerging as a key environmental challenge accompanying global warming and other human-induced perturbations. Considerable research seeks to define the scope and character of potential outcomes from this phenomenon, but a crucial impediment persists. Ecological theory, despite its power and utility, has been only peripherally applied to the problem. Here we sketch in broad strokes several areas where fundamental principles of ecology have the capacity to generate insight into ocean acidification's consequences. We focus on conceptual models that, when considered in the context of acidification, yield explicit predictions regarding a spectrum of population- and community-level effects, from narrowing of species ranges and shifts in patterns of demographic connectivity, to modified consumer-resource relationships, to ascendance of weedy taxa and loss of species diversity. Although our coverage represents only a small fraction of the breadth of possible insights achievable from the application of theory, our hope is that this initial foray will spur expanded efforts to blend experiments with theoretical approaches. The result promises to be a deeper and more nuanced understanding of ocean acidification'and the ecological changes it portends.
Collapse
|
25
|
Asymmetries in body condition and order of arrival influence competitive ability and survival in a coral reef fish. Oecologia 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3401-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
26
|
Ferrari MCO, Munday PL, Rummer JL, McCormick MI, Corkill K, Watson SA, Allan BJM, Meekan MG, Chivers DP. Interactive effects of ocean acidification and rising sea temperatures alter predation rate and predator selectivity in reef fish communities. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2015; 21:1848-1855. [PMID: 25430991 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Ocean warming and acidification are serious threats to marine life. While each stressor alone has been studied in detail, their combined effects on the outcome of ecological interactions are poorly understood. We measured predation rates and predator selectivity of two closely related species of damselfish exposed to a predatory dottyback. We found temperature and CO2 interacted synergistically on overall predation rate, but antagonistically on predator selectivity. Notably, elevated CO2 or temperature alone reversed predator selectivity, but the interaction between the two stressors cancelled selectivity. Routine metabolic rates of the two prey showed strong species differences in tolerance to CO2 and not temperature, but these differences did not correlate with recorded mortality. This highlights the difficulty of linking species-level physiological tolerance to resulting ecological outcomes. This study is the first to document both synergistic and antagonistic effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on a crucial ecological process like predator-prey dynamics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maud C O Ferrari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Bosiger YJ, McCormick MI. Temporal links in daily activity patterns between coral reef predators and their prey. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111723. [PMID: 25354096 PMCID: PMC4213059 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Few studies have documented the activity patterns of both predators and their common prey over 24 h diel cycles. This study documents the temporal periodicity of two common resident predators of juvenile reef fishes, Cephalopholis cyanostigma (rockcod) and Pseudochromis fuscus (dottyback) and compares these to the activity and foraging pattern of a common prey species, juvenile Pomacentrus moluccensis (lemon damselfish). Detailed observations of activity in the field and using 24 h infrared video in the laboratory revealed that the two predators had very different activity patterns. C. cyanostigma was active over the whole 24 h period, with a peak in feeding strikes at dusk and increased activity at both dawn and dusk, while P. fuscus was not active at night and had its highest strike rates at midday. The activity and foraging pattern of P. moluccensis directly opposes that of C. cyanostigma with individuals reducing strike rate and intraspecific aggression at both dawn and dusk, and reducing distance from shelter and boldness at dusk only. Juveniles examined were just outside the size-selection window of P. fuscus. We suggest that the relatively predictable diel behaviour of coral reef predators results from physiological factors such as visual sensory abilities, circadian rhythmicity, variation in hunting profitability, and predation risk at different times of the day. Our study suggests that the diel periodicity of P. moluccensis behaviour may represent a response to increased predation risk at times when both the ability to efficiently capture food and visually detect predators is reduced.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoland J. Bosiger
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mark I. McCormick
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Killen SS, Mitchell MD, Rummer JL, Chivers DP, Ferrari MCO, Meekan MG, McCormick MI. Aerobic scope predicts dominance during early life in a tropical damselfish. Funct Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shaun S. Killen
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine; College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences; University of Glasgow; Glasgow G12 8QQ UK
| | - Matthew D. Mitchell
- School of Marine and Tropical Biology; James Cook University; Townsville Qld 4811 Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies; James Cook University; Townsville Qld 4811 Australia
| | - Jodie L. Rummer
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies; James Cook University; Townsville Qld 4811 Australia
| | - Douglas P. Chivers
- Department of Biology; University of Saskatchewan; Saskatoon Saskatchewan Canada S7N 5E2
| | - Maud C. O. Ferrari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; WCVM; University of Saskatchewan; Saskatoon Saskatchewan S7N 5B4 Canada
| | - Mark G. Meekan
- UWA Ocean Sciences Centre (MO96); Australian Institute of Marine Science; 35 Stirling Highway Crawley Western Australia 6009 Australia
| | - Mark I. McCormick
- School of Marine and Tropical Biology; James Cook University; Townsville Qld 4811 Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies; James Cook University; Townsville Qld 4811 Australia
| |
Collapse
|