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Popov AA, Petruseva IO, Naumenko NV, Lavrik OI. Methods for Assessment of Nucleotide Excision Repair Efficiency. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2023; 88:1844-1856. [PMID: 38105203 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297923110147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is responsible for removing a wide variety of bulky adducts from DNA, thus contributing to the maintenance of genome stability. The efficiency with which proteins of the NER system recognize and remove bulky adducts depends on many factors and is of great clinical and diagnostic significance. The review examines current concepts of the NER system molecular basis in eukaryotic cells and analyzes methods for the assessment of the NER-mediated DNA repair efficiency both in vitro and ex vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksei A Popov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - Irina O Petruseva
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - Natalya V Naumenko
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - Olga I Lavrik
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia.
- Novosibirsk National Research State University, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
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2
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Liu R, Li J, Shao J, Lee JH, Qiu X, Xiao Y, Zhang B, Hao Y, Li M, Chen Q. Innate immune response orchestrates phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate synthetases to support DNA repair. Cell Metab 2021; 33:2076-2089.e9. [PMID: 34343500 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2021.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Ionizing radiation-induced DNA damages cause genome instability and are highly cytotoxic. Deoxyribonucleotide metabolism provides building blocks for DNA repair. Nevertheless, how deoxyribonucleotide metabolism is timely regulated to coordinate with DNA repair remains elusive. Here, we show that ionizing radiation results in TBK1-mediated phosphorylation of phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate synthetase (PRPS)1/2 at T228, thereby enhancing PRPS1/2 catalytic activity and promoting deoxyribonucleotide synthesis. DNA damage-elicited activation of cGAS/STING axis and ATM-mediated PRPS1/2 S16 phosphorylation are required for PRPS1/2 T228 phosphorylation under ionizing radiation. Furthermore, T228 phosphorylation overrides allosteric regulator-mediated effects and preserves PRPS1/2 with high activity. The expression of non-phosphorylatable PRPS1/2 mutants or inhibition of cGAS/STING axis counteracts ionizing radiation-induced PRPS1/2 activation, deoxyribonucleotide synthesis, and DNA repair, and further impairs cell viability. This study highlights a novel and important mechanism underlying an innate immune response-guided deoxyribonucleotide metabolism, which supports DNA repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China.
| | - Jingyi Li
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, China National Nuclear Corporation 416 Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan 610051, China; School of Biological Sciences and Technology, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu 610599, China
| | - Jichun Shao
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, China National Nuclear Corporation 416 Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan 610051, China
| | - Jong-Ho Lee
- Department of Health Sciences, The Graduate School of Dong-A University, Busan 49315, Republic of Korea; Department of Biological Sciences, Dong-A University, Busan 49315, Republic of Korea
| | - Xuemei Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Yanxuan Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
| | - Bowen Zhang
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, China National Nuclear Corporation 416 Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan 610051, China
| | - Yilong Hao
- Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, and the Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, China
| | - Mi Li
- UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX 77225, USA
| | - Qianming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Research Unit of Oral Carcinogenesis and Management, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China.
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3
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Kim DV, Kulishova LM, Torgasheva NA, Melentyev VS, Dianov GL, Medvedev SP, Zakian SM, Zharkov DO. Mild phenotype of knockouts of the major apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease APEX1 in a non-cancer human cell line. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0257473. [PMID: 34529719 PMCID: PMC8445474 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The major human apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site endonuclease, APEX1, is a central player in the base excision DNA repair (BER) pathway and has a role in the regulation of DNA binding by transcription factors. In vertebrates, APEX1 knockouts are embryonic lethal, and only a handful of knockout cell lines are known. To facilitate studies of multiple functions of this protein in human cells, we have used the CRISPR/Cas9 system to knock out the APEX1 gene in a widely used non-cancer hypotriploid HEK 293FT cell line. Two stable knockout lines were obtained, one carrying two single-base deletion alleles and one single-base insertion allele in exon 3, another homozygous in the single-base insertion allele. Both mutations cause a frameshift that leads to premature translation termination before the start of the protein's catalytic domain. Both cell lines totally lacked the APEX1 protein and AP site-cleaving activity, and showed significantly lower levels of the APEX1 transcript. The APEX1-null cells were unable to support BER on uracil- or AP site-containing substrates. Phenotypically, they showed a moderately increased sensitivity to methyl methanesulfonate (MMS; ~2-fold lower EC50 compared with wild-type cells), and their background level of natural AP sites detected by the aldehyde-reactive probe was elevated ~1.5-2-fold. However, the knockout lines retained a nearly wild-type sensitivity to oxidizing agents hydrogen peroxide and potassium bromate. Interestingly, despite the increased MMS cytotoxicity, we observed no additional increase in AP sites in knockout cells upon MMS treatment, which could indicate their conversion into more toxic products in the absence of repair. Overall, the relatively mild cell phenotype in the absence of APEX1-dependent BER suggests that mammalian cells possess mechanisms of tolerance or alternative repair of AP sites. The knockout derivatives of the extensively characterized HEK 293FT cell line may provide a valuable tool for studies of APEX1 in DNA repair and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria V. Kim
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
- SB RAS Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Liliya M. Kulishova
- SB RAS Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | | | - Vasily S. Melentyev
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
- SB RAS Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Grigory L. Dianov
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
- SB RAS Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
- Department of Oncology, MRC Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | | | - Suren M. Zakian
- SB RAS Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Dmitry O. Zharkov
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
- SB RAS Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia
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4
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Piett CG, Pecen TJ, Laverty DJ, Nagel ZD. Large-scale preparation of fluorescence multiplex host cell reactivation (FM-HCR) reporters. Nat Protoc 2021; 16:4265-4298. [PMID: 34363069 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-021-00577-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Repair of DNA damage is a critical survival mechanism that affects susceptibility to various human diseases and represents a key target for cancer therapy. A major barrier to applying this knowledge in research and clinical translation has been the lack of efficient, quantitative functional assays for measuring DNA repair capacity in living primary cells. To overcome this barrier, we recently developed a technology termed 'fluorescence multiplex host cell reactivation' (FM-HCR). We describe a method for using standard molecular biology techniques to generate large quantities of FM-HCR reporter plasmids containing site-specific DNA lesions and using these reporters to assess DNA repair capacity in at least six major DNA repair pathways in live cells. We improve upon previous methodologies by (i) providing a universal workflow for generating reporter plasmids, (ii) improving yield and purity to enable large-scale studies that demand milligram quantities and (iii) reducing preparation time >ten-fold.
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Affiliation(s)
- C G Piett
- Department of Environmental Health, JBL Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - T J Pecen
- Department of Environmental Health, JBL Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - D J Laverty
- Department of Environmental Health, JBL Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Z D Nagel
- Department of Environmental Health, JBL Center for Radiation Sciences, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
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5
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Li W, Sancar A. Methodologies for detecting environmentally induced DNA damage and repair. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2020; 61:664-679. [PMID: 32083352 PMCID: PMC7442611 DOI: 10.1002/em.22365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Environmental DNA damaging agents continuously challenge the integrity of the genome by introducing a variety of DNA lesions. The DNA damage caused by environmental factors will lead to mutagenesis and subsequent carcinogenesis if they are not removed efficiently by repair pathways. Methods for detection of DNA damage and repair can be applied to identify, visualize, and quantify the DNA damage formation and repair events, and they enable us to illustrate the molecular mechanisms of DNA damage formation, DNA repair pathways, mutagenesis, and carcinogenesis. Ever since the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA in 1953, a great number of methods have been developed to detect various types of DNA damage and repair. Rapid advances in sequencing technologies have facilitated the emergence of a variety of novel methods for detecting environmentally induced DNA damage and repair at the genome-wide scale during the last decade. In this review, we provide a historical overview of the development of various damage detection methods. We also highlight the current methodologies to detect DNA damage and repair, especially some next generation sequencing-based methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wentao Li
- Correspondence to: Wentao Li and Aziz Sancar, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599. and
| | - Aziz Sancar
- Correspondence to: Wentao Li and Aziz Sancar, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599. and
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6
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Richer AL, Riemondy KA, Hardie L, Hesselberth JR. Simultaneous measurement of biochemical phenotypes and gene expression in single cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:e59. [PMID: 32286626 PMCID: PMC7261187 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Methods to measure heterogeneity among cells are rapidly transforming our understanding of biology but are currently limited to molecular abundance measurements. We developed an approach to simultaneously measure biochemical activities and mRNA abundance in single cells to understand the heterogeneity of DNA repair activities across thousands of human lymphocytes, identifying known and novel cell-type-specific DNA repair phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Richer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
- Molecular Biology Program
| | - Kent A Riemondy
- RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Lakotah Hardie
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Jay R Hesselberth
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
- Molecular Biology Program
- RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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7
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Ferrucci L, Gonzalez‐Freire M, Fabbri E, Simonsick E, Tanaka T, Moore Z, Salimi S, Sierra F, de Cabo R. Measuring biological aging in humans: A quest. Aging Cell 2020; 19:e13080. [PMID: 31833194 PMCID: PMC6996955 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 309] [Impact Index Per Article: 77.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The global population of individuals over the age of 65 is growing at an unprecedented rate and is expected to reach 1.6 billion by 2050. Most older individuals are affected by multiple chronic diseases, leading to complex drug treatments and increased risk of physical and cognitive disability. Improving or preserving the health and quality of life of these individuals is challenging due to a lack of well-established clinical guidelines. Physicians are often forced to engage in cycles of "trial and error" that are centered on palliative treatment of symptoms rather than the root cause, often resulting in dubious outcomes. Recently, geroscience challenged this view, proposing that the underlying biological mechanisms of aging are central to the global increase in susceptibility to disease and disability that occurs with aging. In fact, strong correlations have recently been revealed between health dimensions and phenotypes that are typical of aging, especially with autophagy, mitochondrial function, cellular senescence, and DNA methylation. Current research focuses on measuring the pace of aging to identify individuals who are "aging faster" to test and develop interventions that could prevent or delay the progression of multimorbidity and disability with aging. Understanding how the underlying biological mechanisms of aging connect to and impact longitudinal changes in health trajectories offers a unique opportunity to identify resilience mechanisms, their dynamic changes, and their impact on stress responses. Harnessing how to evoke and control resilience mechanisms in individuals with successful aging could lead to writing a new chapter in human medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Ferrucci
- Translational Gerontology BranchBiomedical Research CenterNational Institute on AgingNational Institutes of HealthBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Marta Gonzalez‐Freire
- Translational Gerontology BranchBiomedical Research CenterNational Institute on AgingNational Institutes of HealthBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Elisa Fabbri
- Translational Gerontology BranchBiomedical Research CenterNational Institute on AgingNational Institutes of HealthBaltimoreMDUSA
- Department of Medical and Surgical SciencesUniversity of BolognaBolognaItaly
| | - Eleanor Simonsick
- Translational Gerontology BranchBiomedical Research CenterNational Institute on AgingNational Institutes of HealthBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Toshiko Tanaka
- Translational Gerontology BranchBiomedical Research CenterNational Institute on AgingNational Institutes of HealthBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Zenobia Moore
- Translational Gerontology BranchBiomedical Research CenterNational Institute on AgingNational Institutes of HealthBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Shabnam Salimi
- Department of Epidemiology and Public HealthUniversity of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Felipe Sierra
- Division of Aging BiologyNational Institute on AgingNIHBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Rafael de Cabo
- Translational Gerontology BranchBiomedical Research CenterNational Institute on AgingNational Institutes of HealthBaltimoreMDUSA
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8
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Choong PF, Teh HX, Teoh HK, Ong HK, Cheong SK, Kamarul T. DNA repair efficiency associated with reprogrammed osteosarcoma cells. GENE REPORTS 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2019.100409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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9
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Shafirovich V, Kropachev K, Kolbanovskiy M, Geacintov NE. Excision of Oxidatively Generated Guanine Lesions by Competing Base and Nucleotide Excision Repair Mechanisms in Human Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2019; 32:753-761. [PMID: 30688445 PMCID: PMC6465092 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.8b00411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The interchange between different repair mechanisms in human cells has long been a subject of interest. Here, we provide a direct demonstration that the oxidatively generated guanine lesions spiroiminodihydantoin (Sp) and 5-guanidinohydantoin (Gh) embedded in double-stranded DNA are substrates of both base excision repair (BER) and nucleotide excision repair (NER) mechanisms in intact human cells. Site-specifically modified, 32P-internally labeled double-stranded DNA substrates were transfected into fibroblasts or HeLa cells, and the BER and/or NER mono- and dual incision products were quantitatively recovered after 2-8 h incubation periods and lysis of the cells. DNA duplexes bearing single benzo[ a]pyrene-derived guanine adduct were employed as positive controls of NER. The NER activities, but not the BER activities, were abolished in XPA-/- cells, while the BER yields were strongly reduced in NEIL1-/- cells. Co-transfecting different concentrations of analogous DNA sequences bearing the BER substrates 5-hydroxyuracil diminish the BER yields of Sp lesions and enhance the yields of NER products. These results are consistent with a model based on the local availability of BER and NER factors in human cells and their competitive binding to the same Sp or Gh BER/NER substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Shafirovich
- Chemistry Department, New York University, 31 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003-5180, USA
| | - Konstantin Kropachev
- Chemistry Department, New York University, 31 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003-5180, USA
| | - Marina Kolbanovskiy
- Chemistry Department, New York University, 31 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003-5180, USA
| | - Nicholas E. Geacintov
- Chemistry Department, New York University, 31 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003-5180, USA
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10
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Notara M, Behboudifard S, Kluth MA, Maßlo C, Ganss C, Frank MH, Schumacher B, Cursiefen C. UV light-blocking contact lenses protect against short-term UVB-induced limbal stem cell niche damage and inflammation. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12564. [PMID: 30135547 PMCID: PMC6105637 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30021-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
UVB irradiation has been linked to pathogenesis of pterygium, a conjunctival tumor growing onto transparent cornea, the windscreen of the eye. Due to corneal anatomy, ambient UVB irradiation is amplified at the stem cell-containing nasal limbus. The aim of this study was to analyse the effect of a UV-blocking contact lens (UVBCL, senofilcon A, Class 1 UV blocker) on limbal epithelial cells and fibroblasts under UVB irradiation compared to a non-UVB-blocking contact lens. UVBCL prevented UVB-induced DNA damage (as assessed by cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer immunostaining) as well as a decrease in proliferation and scratch wound closure rate of both limbal epithelial and fibroblast cells. Similarly, UVBCL protected limbal epithelial cells from UVB-induced loss of their phenotype in terms of colony forming efficiency and stem cell marker expression (ABCB5, P63α, integrin β1) compared to controls. Moreover, with UVBCL pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNFα and MCP1 remained unchanged. These data demonstrate the significance of UV-protection in preserving the limbal niche in response to at least short-term UVB. Our data support the use of UVBCL in protecting limbal niche cells, especially after limbal stem cell transplantation and in patients after pterygium surgery, to help prevent recurrences.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Notara
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
| | - S Behboudifard
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - M A Kluth
- TICEBA GmbH, Im Neuenheimer Feld 517, Heidelberg, Germany
- RHEACELL GmbH & Co. KG, Im Neuenheimer Feld 517, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - C Maßlo
- TICEBA GmbH, Im Neuenheimer Feld 517, Heidelberg, Germany
- RHEACELL GmbH & Co. KG, Im Neuenheimer Feld 517, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - C Ganss
- TICEBA GmbH, Im Neuenheimer Feld 517, Heidelberg, Germany
- RHEACELL GmbH & Co. KG, Im Neuenheimer Feld 517, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - M H Frank
- Transplant Research Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- School of Medical Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - B Schumacher
- Institute for Genome Stability in Ageing and Disease, CECAD Research Center, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, 50931, Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMK), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - C Cursiefen
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMK), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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11
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Alessio N, Squillaro T, Özcan S, Di Bernardo G, Venditti M, Melone M, Peluso G, Galderisi U. Stress and stem cells: adult Muse cells tolerate extensive genotoxic stimuli better than mesenchymal stromal cells. Oncotarget 2018; 9:19328-19341. [PMID: 29721206 PMCID: PMC5922400 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.25039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are not a homogenous population but comprehend several cell types, such as stem cells, progenitor cells, fibroblasts, and other types of cells. Among these is a population of pluripotent stem cells, which represent around 1–3% of MSCs. These cells, named multilineage-differentiating stress enduring (Muse) cells, are stress-tolerant cells. Stem cells may undergo several rounds of intrinsic and extrinsic stresses due to their long life and must have a robust and effective DNA damage checkpoint and DNA repair mechanism, which, following a genotoxic episode, promote the complete recovery of cells rather than triggering senescence and/or apoptosis. We evaluated how Muse cells can cope with DNA damaging stress in comparison with MSCs. We found that Muse cells were resistant to chemical and physical genotoxic stresses better than non-Muse cells. Indeed, the level of senescence and apoptosis was lower in Muse cells. Our results proved that the DNA damage repair system (DDR) was properly activated following injury in Muse cells. While in non-Muse cells some anomalies may have occurred because, in some cases, the activation of the DDR persisted by 48 hr post damage, in others no activation took place. In Muse cells, the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) enzymatic activity increases compared to other cells, while single-strand repair activity (NER, BER) does not. In conclusion, the high ability of Muse cells to cope with genotoxic stress is related to their quick and efficient sensing of DNA damage and activation of DNA repair systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Alessio
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Campania University "Luigi Vanvitelli," Naples, Italy
| | - Tiziana Squillaro
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Campania University "Luigi Vanvitelli," Naples, Italy
| | - Servet Özcan
- Genome and Stem Cell Center (GENKOK), Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Giovanni Di Bernardo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Campania University "Luigi Vanvitelli," Naples, Italy
| | - Massimo Venditti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Campania University "Luigi Vanvitelli," Naples, Italy
| | - Mariarosa Melone
- Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,2nd Division of Neurology, Center for Rare Diseases & InterUniversity Center for Research in Neurosciences, Department of Medical, Surgical, Neurological, Metabolic Sciences, and Aging, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Napoli, Italy
| | | | - Umberto Galderisi
- Genome and Stem Cell Center (GENKOK), Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey.,Department of Experimental Medicine, Campania University "Luigi Vanvitelli," Naples, Italy.,Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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12
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Development of a Cell-Based Assay for Measuring Base Excision Repair Responses. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13007. [PMID: 29021553 PMCID: PMC5636817 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-12963-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Base excision repair (BER) is the predominant pathway for coping with most forms of hydrolytic, oxidative or alkylative DNA damage. Measuring BER capacity in living cells is valuable for both basic science applications and epidemiological studies, since deficiencies in this pathway have been associated with cancer susceptibility and other adverse health outcomes. At present, there is an ongoing effort to develop methods to effectively quantify the rate of BER as a whole. We present a variation of a previously described “Oligonucleotide Retrieval Assay” designed to measure DNA excision repair that is capable of quantifying the rate of repair of thymine glycol in a variety of human cells with a high degree of sensitivity.
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13
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Fujii N. Potential Strategies to Target Protein-Protein Interactions in the DNA Damage Response and Repair Pathways. J Med Chem 2017; 60:9932-9959. [PMID: 28654754 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b00358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This review article discusses some insights about generating novel mechanistic inhibitors of the DNA damage response and repair (DDR) pathways by focusing on protein-protein interactions (PPIs) of the key DDR components. General requirements for PPI strategies, such as selecting the target PPI site on the basis of its functionality, are discussed first. Next, on the basis of functional rationale and biochemical feasibility to identify a PPI inhibitor, 26 PPIs in DDR pathways (BER, MMR, NER, NHEJ, HR, TLS, and ICL repair) are specifically discussed for inhibitor discovery to benefit cancer therapies using a DNA-damaging agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoaki Fujii
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital , 262 Danny Thomas Place, MS1000, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, United States
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Shafirovich V, Geacintov NE. Removal of oxidatively generated DNA damage by overlapping repair pathways. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 107:53-61. [PMID: 27818219 PMCID: PMC5418118 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.10.507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
It is generally believed that the mammalian nucleotide excision repair pathway removes DNA helix-distorting bulky DNA lesions, while small non-bulky lesions are repaired by base excision repair (BER). However, recent work demonstrates that the oxidativly generated guanine oxidation products, spiroimininodihydantoin (Sp), 5-guanidinohydantoin (Gh), and certain intrastrand cross-linked lesions, are good substrates of NER and BER pathways that compete with one another in human cell extracts. The oxidation of guanine by peroxynitrite is known to generate 5-guanidino-4-nitroimidazole (NIm) which is structurally similar to Gh, except that the 4-nitro group in NIm is replaced by a keto group in Gh. However, unlike Gh, NIm is an excellent substrate of BER, but not of NER. These and other related results are reviewed and discussed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Shafirovich
- Chemistry Department, New York University, 31 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003-5180, USA.
| | - Nicholas E Geacintov
- Chemistry Department, New York University, 31 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003-5180, USA
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15
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Jarrett SG, D'Orazio JA. Hormonal Regulation of the Repair of UV Photoproducts in Melanocytes by the Melanocortin Signaling Axis. Photochem Photobiol 2016; 93:245-258. [PMID: 27645605 DOI: 10.1111/php.12640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer because of its propensity to spread beyond the primary site of disease and because it resists many forms of treatment. Incidence of melanoma has been increasing for decades. Although ultraviolet radiation (UV) has been identified as the most important environmental causative factor for melanoma development, UV-protective strategies have had limited efficacy in melanoma prevention. UV mutational burden correlates with melanoma development and tumor progression, underscoring the importance of UV in melanomagenesis. However, besides amount of UV exposure, melanocyte UV mutational load is influenced by the robustness of nucleotide excision repair, the genome maintenance pathway charged with removing UV photoproducts before they cause permanent mutations in the genome. In this review, we highlight the importance of the melanocortin hormonal signaling axis on regulating efficiency of nucleotide excision repair in melanocytes. By understanding the molecular mechanisms by which nucleotide excision repair can be increased, it may be possible to prevent many cases of melanoma by reducing UV mutational burden over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Jarrett
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY
| | - John A D'Orazio
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY.,Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY.,Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY.,Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY
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16
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Jarrett SG, Wolf Horrell EM, D'Orazio JA. AKAP12 mediates PKA-induced phosphorylation of ATR to enhance nucleotide excision repair. Nucleic Acids Res 2016; 44:10711-10726. [PMID: 27683220 PMCID: PMC5159552 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkw871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss-of-function in melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), a GS protein-coupled receptor that regulates signal transduction through cAMP and protein kinase A (PKA) in melanocytes, is a major inherited melanoma risk factor. Herein, we report a novel cAMP-mediated response for sensing and responding to UV-induced DNA damage regulated by A-kinase-anchoring protein 12 (AKAP12). AKAP12 is identified as a necessary participant in PKA-mediated phosphorylation of ataxia telangiectasia mutated and Rad3-related (ATR) at S435, a post-translational event required for cAMP-enhanced nucleotide excision repair (NER). Moreover, UV exposure promotes ATR-directed phosphorylation of AKAP12 at S732, which promotes nuclear translocation of AKAP12–ATR-pS435. This complex subsequently recruits XPA to UV DNA damage and enhances 5′ strand incision. Preventing AKAP12's interaction with PKA or with ATR abrogates ATR-pS435 accumulation, delays recruitment of XPA to UV-damaged DNA, impairs NER and increases UV-induced mutagenesis. Our results define a critical role for AKAP12 as an UV-inducible scaffold for PKA-mediated ATR phosphorylation, and identify a repair complex consisting of AKAP12–ATR-pS435-XPA at photodamage, which is essential for cAMP-enhanced NER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart G Jarrett
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Erin M Wolf Horrell
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.,Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - John A D'Orazio
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA .,Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.,Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
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17
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Beyond Red Hair and Sunburns: Uncovering the Molecular Mechanisms of MC1R Signaling and Repair of UV-Induced DNA Damage. J Invest Dermatol 2016; 135:2918-2921. [PMID: 26569585 PMCID: PMC4648680 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Scientists at the University of Kentucky are unraveling the details of DNA-damage repair in the melanocyte, with an eye towards finding druggable targets for melanoma prevention. Jarret et al., (2015, this issue) report in this issue three new assays that can yield mechanistic information about nucleotide excision repair (NER) stimulated by cAMP-dependent signaling downstream of the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R).
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18
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Zafeer M, Mahjabeen I, Kayani MA. Increased expression of ERCC2 gene in head and neck cancer is associated with aggressive tumors: a systematic review and case-control study. Int J Biol Markers 2016; 31:e17-25. [PMID: 26659720 DOI: 10.5301/jbm.5000186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The excision repair cross-complementation group 2 (ERCC2) ATP-dependent helicase is an essential member of the DNA repair pathway. It has been observed to be differentially expressed in different cancers, which shows its involvement in carcinogenesis. AIM In the present study we have tried to determine the association of expression patterns of this gene with head and neck carcinogenesis. METHOD We first carried out a systematic review of the available studies on the role of ERCC2 in head and neck cancer (HNC). In order to test the hypothesis that the expression patterns of XPD/ERCC2 play a critical role in HNC pathogenesis, we then conducted a population based case-control study on 81 head and neck tumor samples and adjacent normal-tissue control samples. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) were used to assess ERCC2 deregulation at the mRNA level. RESULT Expression analysis showed that the ERCC2 expression level was significantly upregulated (p<0.05) in HNC tissues compared with adjacent normal tissues. Furthermore, the expression pattern of ERCC2 was correlated with the expression pattern of Ki-67 and a significant correlation (r = 0.230, p<0.03) was observed between ERCC2 and Ki-67. Spearman's correlation also showed a significant correlation between ERCC2 expression and tumor stage (r = 0.271, p<0.02) and grade (r = 0.228, p<0.02) of HNC. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that deregulation of ERCC2 in HNC has the potential to predict a more aggressive cancer phenotype and may be considered a possible biomarker for improved diagnosis and prognosis of HNC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Zafeer
- Cancer Genetics and Epigenetics Research Group, Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad - Pakistan
| | - Ishrat Mahjabeen
- Cancer Genetics and Epigenetics Research Group, Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad - Pakistan
| | - Mahmood Akhtar Kayani
- Cancer Genetics and Epigenetics Research Group, Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad - Pakistan
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Shafirovich V, Kropachev K, Anderson T, Liu Z, Kolbanovskiy M, Martin BD, Sugden K, Shim Y, Chen X, Min JH, Geacintov NE. Base and Nucleotide Excision Repair of Oxidatively Generated Guanine Lesions in DNA. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:5309-19. [PMID: 26733197 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.693218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The well known biomarker of oxidative stress, 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine, is more susceptible to further oxidation than the parent guanine base and can be oxidatively transformed to the genotoxic spiroiminodihydantoin (Sp) and 5-guanidinohydantoin (Gh) lesions. Incubation of 135-mer duplexes with single Sp or Gh lesions in human cell extracts yields a characteristic nucleotide excision repair (NER)-induced ladder of short dual incision oligonucleotide fragments in addition to base excision repair (BER) incision products. The ladders were not observed when NER was inhibited either by mouse monoclonal antibody (5F12) to human XPA or in XPC(-/-) fibroblast cell extracts. However, normal NER activity appeared when the XPC(-/-) cell extracts were complemented with XPC-RAD23B proteins. The Sp and Gh lesions are excellent substrates of both BER and NER. In contrast, 5-guanidino-4-nitroimidazole, a product of the oxidation of guanine in DNA by peroxynitrite, is an excellent substrate of BER only. In the case of mouse embryonic fibroblasts, BER of the Sp lesion is strongly reduced in NEIL1(-/-) relative to NEIL1(+/+) extracts. In summary, in human cell extracts, BER and NER activities co-exist and excise Gh and Sp DNA lesions, suggesting that the relative NER/BER product ratios may depend on competitive BER and NER protein binding to these lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Shafirovich
- From the Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003,
| | | | - Thomas Anderson
- From the Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Zhi Liu
- From the Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Marina Kolbanovskiy
- From the Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003
| | - Brooke D Martin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, and
| | - Kent Sugden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59812, and
| | - Yoonjung Shim
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60607
| | - Xuejing Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60607
| | - Jung-Hyun Min
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60607
| | - Nicholas E Geacintov
- From the Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York 10003,
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20
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Defining the Contribution of MC1R Physiological Ligands to ATR Phosphorylation at Ser435, a Predictor of DNA Repair in Melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135:3086-3095. [PMID: 26168232 PMCID: PMC4648643 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Revised: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), a GS-coupled receptor that signals through cAMP and PKA, regulates pigmentation, adaptive tanning, and melanoma resistance. MC1R-cAMP signaling promotes PKA-mediated phosphorylation of ataxia telangiectasia and rad3-related (ATR) at Ser435 (ATR-pS435), a modification that enhances nucleotide excision repair (NER) by facilitating recruitment of the XPA protein to sites of UV-induced DNA damage. High-throughput methods were developed to quantify ATR-pS435, measure XPA-photodamage interactions and assess NER function. We report that melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) induce ATR-pS435, enhance XPA’s association with UV-damaged DNA and optimize melanocytic NER. In contrast, MC1R antagonists agouti signaling protein (ASIP) or human β-defensin 3 (HBD3) interfere with ATR-pS435 generation, impair the XPA-DNA interaction and reduce DNA repair. Although ASIP and HBD3 each blocked α-MSH-mediated induction of the signaling pathway, only ASIP depleted basal ATR-pS435. Our findings confirm that ASIP diminishes agonist-independent MC1R basal signaling whereas HBD3 is a neutral MC1R antagonist that blocks activation by melanocortins. Furthermore, our data suggest that ATR-pS435 may be a useful biomarker for the DNA repair-deficient MC1R phenotype.
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21
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Kamath-Loeb AS, Balakrishna S, Whittington D, Shen JC, Emond MJ, Okabe T, Masutani C, Hanaoka F, Nishimura S, Loeb LA. Sphingosine, a modulator of human translesion DNA polymerase activity. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:21663-72. [PMID: 24928506 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.570242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Translesion (TLS) DNA polymerases are specialized, error-prone enzymes that synthesize DNA across bulky, replication-stalling DNA adducts. In so doing, they facilitate the progression of DNA synthesis and promote cell proliferation. To potentiate the effect of cancer chemotherapeutic regimens, we sought to identify inhibitors of TLS DNA polymerases. We screened five libraries of ∼ 3000 small molecules, including one comprising ∼ 600 nucleoside analogs, for their effect on primer extension activity of DNA polymerase η (Pol η). We serendipitously identified sphingosine, a lipid-signaling molecule that robustly stimulates the activity of Pol η by ∼ 100-fold at low micromolar concentrations but inhibits it at higher concentrations. This effect is specific to the Y-family DNA polymerases, Pols η, κ, and ι. The addition of a single phosphate group on sphingosine completely abrogates this effect. Likewise, the inclusion of other sphingolipids, including ceramide and sphingomyelin to extension reactions does not elicit this response. Sphingosine increases the rate of correct and incorrect nucleotide incorporation while having no effect on polymerase processivity. Endogenous Pol η activity is modulated similarly as the recombinant enzyme. Importantly, sphingosine-treated cells exhibit increased lesion bypass activity, and sphingosine tethered to membrane lipids mimics the effects of free sphingosine. Our studies have uncovered sphingosine as a modulator of TLS DNA polymerase activity; this property of sphingosine may be associated with its known role as a signaling molecule in regulating cell proliferation in response to cellular stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwini S Kamath-Loeb
- From the Departments of Pathology and Biochemistry, The Gottstein Memorial Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Sharath Balakrishna
- From the Departments of Pathology and Biochemistry, The Gottstein Memorial Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Dale Whittington
- the Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Mass Spectrometry Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Jiang-Cheng Shen
- From the Departments of Pathology and Biochemistry, The Gottstein Memorial Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Mary J Emond
- Biostatistics and Center for Biomedical Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Takayoshi Okabe
- the Open Innovation Center for Drug Discovery, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Chikahide Masutani
- the Department of Genome Dynamics, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Fumio Hanaoka
- the Institute for Biomolecular Science, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin University, Tokyo 171-8588, Japan, and
| | - Susumu Nishimura
- the Laboratory Animal Resource Center, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8575, Japan
| | - Lawrence A Loeb
- From the Departments of Pathology and Biochemistry, The Gottstein Memorial Cancer Research Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195,
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