Levels of maternal care in dogs affect adult offspring temperament

Roadmap for maternal behavior research in domestic dogs: lessons from decades of laboratory rodent work

Maternal behavior research in laboratory rats has revealed important behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms governing the onset, maintenance and decline of maternal behavior. However, the extent to which these mechanisms are evolutionarily conserved across species is less clear. This manuscript proposes that examining these mechanisms in dogs may be a viable approach to test their generality and help bridge the gap between rodent and human research, as domestic dogs show greater individual differences and exhibit more human-like maternal characteristics than rodents. These aspects represent advantages over rodent models, which in turn allow systems biological approaches not available in rodents. Additionally, domestic dogs share similar social environments with humans, suffer from the same mental disorders as humans, and can be treated with the same medications. This paper begins with a summary of key findings and theoretical developments from decades of rat maternal behavior research, followed by a literature review of the extant maternal behavior research on dogs and related methodology, highlighting the unique behavioral characteristics of dog maternal behavior and similarities and differences from rat maternal behavior. Finally, several knowledge gaps in dog maternal behavior research, as well as the future research in this area is discussed. It concludes that research on dog maternal behavior will not only advance our understanding of the universality of the neurobiological and behavioral mechanisms in maternal behavior, but also improve our understanding of risk factors associated with postpartum mental disorders.

An Assessment of Scientific Evidence Relating to the Effect of Early Experience on the Risk of Human-Directed Aggression by Adult Dogs

Human-directed aggression by domestic dogs is a major worldwide public health problem. The causes of aggression are complex, and research in this area often has to balance ecological validity with pragmatic controls; accordingly, it often does not meet the thresholds for quality typically used in reviews applying a classical "evidence-based" approach. Here, we propose a method of literature assessment that makes the "best use" of available evidence to identify and synthesise evidence relating to the most likely risk factors reported in the scientific literature. We used a systematic review process to initially identify relevant literature relating to potential early life experience (i.e., in the first six months of life) risk factors in the dog for human-directed aggression in the adult animal. Fourteen papers met our initial screening process and were subsequently analysed in detail, with data extracted and effect sizes calculated where possible. This highlighted the potential importance of the source of the animal, the age at which it was rehomed, the reason for the acquisition, the experience level of the owner, the animal's socialisation experiences, the consistent husbandry and management practices, the training, the sex ratio of the litter and the history of dogs that display aggression in the pedigree as risk factors. Taken together, it seems that early experiences which limit the ability to develop effective coping strategies and routines may be particularly important. We provide guidance for the future standardised reporting of risk related to human-directed aggression by dogs to allow greater synthesis of the literature in the future.

Early Puppy Behavior: Tools for Later Success

Breeders have a unique ability to positively impact the lives of puppies. Veterinarians have the opportunity to educate breeders on the importance of implementing early behavior strategies, including bite prevention in the form of early body handling, socialization, food bowl exercises, and object exchange exercises, and emotional resilience training, early house training, and early life skill training such as crate training, recall, and sit to say please. New puppy owners should be encouraged and educated on how to safely continue this training and socialization after they pick up their puppy and guided to enroll in a well-run puppy class.

Environmental risk factors in puppies and kittens for developing chronic disorders in adulthood: A call for research on developmental programming

Many dogs and cats are affected by chronic diseases that significantly impact their health and welfare and relationships with humans. Some of these diseases can be challenging to treat, and a better understanding of early-life risk factors for diseases occurring in adulthood is key to improving preventive veterinary care and husbandry practices. This article reviews early-life risk factors for obesity and chronic enteropathy, and for chronic behavioral problems, which can also be intractable with life-changing consequences. Aspects of early life in puppies and kittens that can impact the risk of adult disorders include maternal nutrition, establishment of the gut microbiome, maternal behavior, weaning, nutrition during growth, growth rate, socialization with conspecifics and humans, rehoming and neutering. Despite evidence in some species that the disorders reviewed here reflect the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD), developmental programming has rarely been studied in dogs and cats. Priorities and strategies to increase knowledge of early-life risk factors and DOHaD in dogs and cats are discussed. Critical windows of development are proposed: preconception, gestation, the suckling period, early growth pre-neutering or pre-puberty, and growth post-neutering or post-puberty to adult size, the durations of which depend upon species and breed. Challenges to DOHaD research in these species include a large number of breeds with wide genetic and phenotypic variability, and the existence of many mixed-breed individuals. Moreover, difficulties in conducting prospective lifelong cohort studies are exacerbated by discontinuity in pet husbandry between breeders and subsequent owners, and by the dispersed nature of pet ownership.

Optimising Puppy Socialisation-Short- and Long-Term Effects of a Training Programme during the Early Socialisation Period

The socialisation period in dog puppies is one of the most important periods determining behavioural development in dogs. Here, we aimed to test the effect of providing stimulation (beyond mere exposure) early during the socialisation period (approx. 3-6 weeks) on puppies' behaviour. Each of 12 litters (83 puppies) of various breeds was divided into a treatment and a control group. Between 3-6 weeks, the treatment group received age-appropriate "challenge" exercises (carefully graded noise exposure, novel objects, and problem-solving tasks) four times per week (total 12 times). The control group spent the same time with the trainer, who cuddled or played with the puppies. In a behaviour test at 6-7 weeks, two of four principal components, "social-startle" and "response to novelty", differed significantly between the groups. Treatment puppies were bolder towards the novel object, showed a reduced startle reaction, and recovered more quickly after a loud noise. Furthermore, they accomplished the problem-solving task faster and were more persistent during problem-solving than the control group. The control group showed a higher interest in a friendly stranger. It is a possibility that increased handling experienced by the control group had beneficial effects on their sociability. No long-term effects of the treatment were found, as determined by a validated dog personality questionnaire, available for 67 dogs at the age of six months. Likely, a continuation of the treatment over a longer time period would be necessary to obtain lasting effects, since the training took place only during the first third of the socialisation period.

Canine Socialisation: A Narrative Systematic Review

There are over 10 million pet dogs in the UK alone, and they have become a member of modern human families. If not properly socialised as puppies, dogs have a higher risk of problematic behaviours during adulthood, yet socialisation studies are lacking. Much of the experimental research was carried out at least 50 years ago, and the importance of socialisation was demonstrated so clearly that further studies with unsocialised controls would be deemed unethical. In this review, the aim was to evaluate all literature relevant to canine socialisation. This review used PRISMA-P guidelines to identify 29 studies: 14 were questionnaire-based studies (two of which also had a testing element), 15 included some form of experimental manipulation relating to socialisation, and one was a purely observational study. Based on this literature review, we recommend future research into minimum necessary socialisation levels, as well as breed differences in the timing of effective socialisation. Such studies will help owners and breeders produce well-adjusted adult dogs.

An investigation on the olfactory capabilities of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)

The extraordinary olfactory capabilities in detection and rescue dogs are well-known. However, the olfactory performance varies by breed and search environment (Jezierski et al. in Forensic Sci Int 237:112-118, 2014), as well as by the quantity of training (Horowitz et al. in Learn Motivation 44(4):207-217, 2013). While detection of an olfactory cue inherently demands a judgment regarding the presence or absence of a cue at a given location, olfactory discrimination requires an assessment of quantity, a task demanding more attention and, hence, decreasing reliability as an informational source (Horowitz et al. 2013). This study aims at gaining more clarity on detection and discrimination of olfactory cues in untrained dogs and in a variety of dog breeds. Using a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) paradigm, we assessed olfactory detection scores by presenting a varied quantity of food reward under one or the other hidden cup, and discrimination scores by presenting two varied quantities of food reward under both hidden cups. We found relatively reliable detection performances across all breeds and limited discrimination abilities, modulated by breed. We discuss our findings in relation to the cognitive demands imposed by the tasks and the cephalic index of the dog breeds.

Factors influencing ease of whelping and its relationship with maternal behaviour and puppy perinatal mortality in commercially bred dogs

For dog breeders, parturition is a critical stage in the reproductive cycle of the dam. Evidence in other mammals suggests that a difficult labour can influence maternal behaviour and offspring viability during the first hours postpartum. However, the effect of whelping difficulty on the onset of maternal behaviour has not yet been investigated in domestic dogs. Here we developed an ease of whelping (EoW) index in dams maintained within a Commercial dog Breeding Establishment (CBE) environment and investigated the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic factors (breed group according to size/weight, litter size, parity, whelping season and origin of the dam), EoW, early maternal behaviour and puppy perinatal mortality. The behaviour of 30 dams was observed throughout the whelping process, starting 24 h before delivery of the first puppy until birth of the last puppy. Parturition duration, birth interval, and behaviours indicative of distress, restlessness, and general activity were scored and included in a Principal Component Analysis to construct the EoW index. Subsequently, mother-pup interactions and puppy perinatal mortality were recorded during the first 24 and 72 h postpartum respectively. Results showed that EoW was significantly affected by whelping season, litter size and origin of the dam (whether she was born and raised within the CBE or brought in). Furthermore, mothers that experienced more difficult parturitions (higher EoW score) spent more time lying in contact with their puppies during the first 24 h postpartum. Time in contact with puppies was also significantly affected by breed group. Nursing duration was significantly affected by breed group and origin of the dam. Additionally, medium-size breed (10-20 kg) puppies were significantly less likely to experience perinatal mortality than large breeds (> 20 kg). These findings are particularly relevant for the welfare of breeding dams maintained in large-scale CBEs where the staff-to-dog ratio might be insufficient to adequately manage multiple simultaneous parturitions.

Basal cortisol concentrations related to maternal behavior during puppy development predict post-growth resilience in dogs

A prolonged stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP) due to the mother's presence may delay the timing of glucocorticoid (GC) elevation in infants, thereby reducing the excessive stress response that would affect post-growth temperament. In dogs, the SHRP has been suggested to persist until postnatal week (PW) 4; therefore, PW 5, which SHRP may be prolonged by the mother dog, may be a critical point in the developmental stage of dogs to establish stress responsiveness. We conducted a long-term survey on the development of dogs to investigate i) whether the degree of the stress response at PW 5 is determined by maternal behavior and ii) whether it can predict post-growth stress responses and temperament in dogs. As a result, the offspring of mother dogs who had more delivery experience and exhibited more maternal behavior showed higher basal cortisol concentrations at PW 5. These offspring may have acquired less fear response as an individual trait and had relatively quick adaptability, albeit with high cortisol concentrations during exposure to novel environments post-growth, suggesting that high cortisol concentrations at PW 5 are linked to resilience post-growth. Basal cortisol concentrations at PW 7 were not affected by maternal variables and were not associated with cortisol response to novel environments post-growth. GCs are essential hormones that increase the probability of survival. Therefore, the high hypothalamic pituitary adrenal activities of the mother dogs and their offspring in this study may not immediately indicate negative states, and these results prompt a reconsideration of the role of GC in organisms.

Oxytocin Receptor Gene Polymorphism in Lactating Dogs

Simple Summary

Oxytocin is commonly known for its role in mammalian bonding. Several studies have proved that polymorphisms of the oxytocin receptor gene are related to complex social behaviors in humans, but studies on the possible correlation between canine social behavior and oxytocin are mainly focused on the human–dog bond, and there are no data on the possible correlation between oxytocin receptor gene polymorphism and the maternal behavior of this species. Since mother–litter interactions could have a severe impact in determining later behavior in domestic dogs, the aim of this work was to investigate the possible correlation between salivary oxytocin, maternal care and the one known single-nucleotide polymorphism (rs8679684) located in the untranslated regulatory region of the oxytocin receptor gene in 19 lactating Labrador Retriever dogs. A significant correlation between oxytocin receptor gene polymorphism, peripheral oxytocin and maternal behavior in dogs was found. This implies that a more functional oxytocinergic system would lead to better mothering in dogs.

Abstract

Genetic variations in the oxytocinergic system, known to regulate social behavior throughout the evolution of mammals, are believed to account for differences in mammalian social behavior. Particularly, polymorphic variants of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene have been associated with behavioral variations in both humans and dogs. In this study, we offered evidence of the correlation between levels of salivary oxytocin (sOXT), maternal behavior and a single-nucleotide gene variant in OXTR (rs8679684) in nineteen lactating Labrador Retriever dogs. Carriers of at least one copy of the minor A allele showed higher levels of sOXT and maternal care in comparison with the homozygous T allele carriers. Considering the relevance of mother care in newborn development, these findings could help us to better understand the possible impact of variants in the OXTR gene in selecting dams.

Profile of Dogs' Breeders and Their Considerations on Female Reproduction, Maternal Care and the Peripartum Stress-An International Survey

Simple Summary

Nowadays, all over the occidental world, an increasing number of dogs are bred to be companion animals and they are often considered part of the family. Although, dog overpopulation is still a current problem, the importance of dogs as companion or work animals is undeniable. The source of the dog (size and type of kennels) seems to affect its performance and its life outcome. To understand the perception of dog breeders and puppy production in western societies, an online international survey was sent to breeders in North and South America, Europe and Oceania. The survey focused on breeders’ demographics and maternal behaviour and stress during the peripartum period. Overall, based on the responders’ feedback, puppy production is an activity driven partially by small-scale hobby or sporadic breeders. A close relation between dogs and breeders has been observed in different countries with small differences. In general, stress reduction during strategic times was a common concern amongst breeders who were using slightly different interventions. Spending more time with the bitches to reassure them was commonly employed.

Abstract

Dogs are part of many households worldwide and in recent years in some western countries, more and more people describe them as members of the family. The accurate number of dogs per household and the actual demand for puppies are hard to estimate correctly. The sources of dogs seem to be an important element to consider before acquiring a dog since some behavioural disorders are more likely observed in dogs coming from puppy mills and pet stores. Therefore, there is an increased need to better-know dog breeders, theirs believes and practices. To full-fill this objective, an online questionnaire in five different languages (English, German, Polish, Portuguese and Spanish) was sent to dog breeders. The survey intended to study the demographics of dog breeders and to understand their perception and practices about reproduction, maternal behaviour and management of the dam during the peripartum period. We were also interested to evaluate the occurrence and the impact of stress around parturition and how breeders deal with overstressed bitches and if they believe that motherly quality could have a later-on effect on the livelihood of the dog. Six hundred and sixty-eight respondents participated in the survey, mainly from Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Portugal, Poland, Spain, United Kingdom, United States of America and non-listed country (reported as ‘other’ in the survey). A country effect was observed in relation to housing system, human interaction, the use of techniques to define breeding and whelping time and different methods to manage stress during the peripartum period. Considering the demographics of the responders, breeding activity is, in general, a family based activity with an effect of country. Use of progesterone levels to manage reproduction and pregnancy diagnosis by ultrasound were cited as common practice. In general, parturition takes place under human supervision. Peripartum period was perceived as a stressful moment with a difference in the way of addressing the problem based on the country but reassuring the bitch by increasing human presence was frequently described. Inappropriate maternal behaviour was observed by half of responders and if presented primiparous bitches and parturition by C-section were overrepresented. Puppies stayed with the dams from 4 weeks to 9 weeks and dog breeders from Spain, Poland and Portugal are keeping puppies with their mother the longest. Overall, poor maternal behaviour has an impact on puppies’ cognitive development with German breeders being more convinced than their counterparts from Brazil and Spain.

A Pilot Study of the Effects of Human Intervention on Canine Group Movement Behavior

Dogs are the oldest domesticated animals. The process of domestication of dogs is still unclear; however, they have established themselves as human partners and are sometimes more cooperative with humans than their conspecifics. In this study, to determine the effect of affiliative human presence on group behavior in dogs, we conducted short-time trials analyzing dog group movements. There was a hierarchical relationship in which juvenile dogs were aware of adult dogs, and adult dogs were aware of human movements. We also found that the age of the juvenile dog and the characteristics of their mothers may affect the movement behavior of juvenile dogs.

Development and Training for Working Dogs

Individual differences in behavior lead to wide variability in working dog suitability, and are the primary reason for rejection or early release. Behavioral suitability of a working dog is shaped by interactions with its environment during early development and specialized training. Understanding how aspects of development and training affect a working dog's performance is critical for practitioners to effectively evaluate and treat behavioral concerns in working dogs. This article provides an overview of critical aspects of puppy development that influence future behavior, and reviews important features of training that influence a dog's ability to learn and perform its designated task.

Enhancing the Selection and Performance of Working Dogs

Dogs perform a variety of integral roles in our society, engaging in work ranging from assistance (e.g., service dogs, guide dogs) and therapy to detection (e.g., search-and-rescue dogs, explosive detection dogs) and protection (e.g., military and law enforcement dogs). However, success in these roles, which requires dogs to meet challenging behavioral criteria and to undergo extensive training, is far from guaranteed. Therefore, enhancing the selection process is critical for the effectiveness and efficiency of working dog programs and has the potential to optimize how resources are invested in these programs, increase the number of available working dogs, and improve working dog welfare. In this paper, we review two main approaches for achieving this goal: (1) developing selection tests and criteria that can efficiently and effectively identify ideal candidates from the overall pool of candidate dogs, and (2) developing approaches to enhance performance, both at the individual and population level, via improvements in rearing, training, and breeding. We summarize key findings from the empirical literature regarding best practices for assessing, selecting, and improving working dogs, and conclude with future steps and recommendations for working dog organizations, breeders, trainers, and researchers.

The Influence of Oxytocin on Maternal Care in Lactating Dogs

In recent years, many studies on the role of oxytocin (OXT) in the onset of parental care, regulation of social bonding, and modulation of the emotional state have been published. However, its possible regulation of maternal behavior in lactating dogs has not been investigated yet. For this reason, the present study aimed at assessing potential correlations between salivary oxytocin and maternal behavior in 25 lactating Labrador Retriever dogs. Salivary concentrations of OXT (sOXT) were unrelated to the amount of maternal care except for a weak negative correlation with sniffing/poking behavior. Moreover, sOXT was positively correlated with the percentage of male puppies. Sniffing/poking behavior, in turn, was positively correlated with the duration of time the mothers spent out of the whelping box, while the number of male puppies showed a positive correlation with lateral nursing, a position known to provide puppies the easiest access to the milk. Taken together, these results suggest that sOXT may not be strongly associated with maternal care dynamics but could be correlated with sex-biased parental investment in dogs.

Influence of gestational exercise practice and litter size reduction on maternal care

Mother-pup interactions are extremely important to offspring survival and growth. The goal of this study was to evaluate the influence of prenatal and neonatal interventions on maternal care, analyzing the effect of maternal exercise, as a healthy intervention, and also the litter size reduction, a model that has been widely used to study early overfeeding in rats. Female Wistar rats were divided into 1) sedentary, and 2) swimming exercise for four weeks, starting one week before mating (5 days/week, 30 min/session). One day after birth, the litter was culled to 8 pups (normal) or 3 pups (small) per dam, yielding control and overfed subgroups for each maternal group, respectively. From postnatal days 2-9 the litter was observed 5 periods a day, to evaluate maternal behavior. Litter reduction caused important alterations in maternal behavior, reducing the total time out of the nest and increasing the frequency of maternal care and lactation in several observation periods, justifying the increased pup's weight gain already demonstrated by this animal model. The practice of maternal exercise did not prevent, but cause the less intensive frequency of non-maternal behavior and lactation in arched-back position, induced by the reduction of litter size. These data demonstrated that small litter size altered maternal behavior, and gestational exercise does not influence significantly these changes.

Influence of ADAPTIL® during the Weaning Period: A Double-Blinded Randomised Clinical Trial

Simple Summary

The process of weaning can potentially affect the development of dogs due to frustration of both the dam and the puppies and, consequently, affect their interactions. Comprehending the dam and puppies’ interactions during the weaning process could provide information to help overcome the challenges of this period. In addition, the use of ADAPTIL^®, a dog-appeasing pheromone, could potentially reduce the stress and decrease the frustration associated with weaning. To better understand the dam and puppies’ interactions around the weaning time and the effect of ADAPTIL^®, 25 bitch/litter dyads were evaluated under the influence of ADAPTIL^® (n = 14) or a placebo (n = 11). Video recording allowed the evaluation of the dam and puppies’ behaviours at weeks three/four, weeks five/six and weeks seven/eight). Contact of the dam and the puppies were inversely affected when compared to puppy-to-puppy interactions. Over time, the dam spent less time with the puppies, and the puppies played more often with their littermates. Under ADAPTIL^®, the puppies seemed to cope better with frustration, and the bitches were more relaxed in the presence of the puppies. The perception of the breeders measured by visual analogue scales indicated a beneficial outcome of the use of the pheromone in the dam/puppies relationship during the weaning period.

Abstract

ADAPTIL^®, a dog-appeasing pheromone, was shown to modify the dam–puppies’ interactions during the neonatal period but could also influence the weaning period. Fourteen bitch/litter dyads continuously exposed to ADAPTIL^® from the third/fourth weeks until the seventh/eighth weeks postpartum were compared to 11 dyads exposed to a placebo. Maternal and puppy behaviours were video-recorded, and at three time points (weeks three/four, weeks five/six and weeks seven/eight) after parturition. The well-being of the puppies and the overall relationship with the bitch were assessed using visual analogue scales (VAS) completed by the caregivers. All mothering behaviours, such as time of contact, licking and the amount of time dedicated to nursing puppies, decreased gradually from weeks three/four to weeks seven/eight. A switch in nursing position was observed over time: the use of the standing position increased compared to the lying position. The treatment had an effect on the nursing position: bitches in the ADAPTIL^® group nursed more often in a lying (p = 0.007) or sitting position (p = 0.037), whereas for the placebo group, they favoured the standing position (p = 0.011). Once the puppies became more demanding for suckling, the bitches started showing rejection signs or aggressive growling, with a peak at weeks seven/eight. The pheromone seemed to reduce the intensity of avoidance in bitches exposed to ADAPTIL^® at all time points. The score of all events combined as a sign of frustration showed a difference over the full period (p = 0.003), with the placebo group having a significantly higher score. From the caregiver perspective (through the VAS), under ADAPTIL^®, the bitches were calmer when puppies tried to suckle (p = 0.001), more tolerant towards pups (p = 0.025), showed a greater motherly attitude (p = 0.016), the puppies cried less when left alone (p < 0.001) and interactions amongst pups were more harmonious (p = 0.055). Under ADAPTIL^®, the bitches were less annoyed by the puppies, who seemed to cope better with frustration. The breeders perceived a benefit of the pheromone during the weaning period.

Risk factors associated with tail damage in conventional non-docked pigs throughout the lactation and rearing period

Tail biting is an abnormal behaviour in pigs, and remains an economic and welfare problem in modern pig production. Reasons for performing tail-biting behaviour are of multifactorial origin, and are often related to the current environment or internal characteristics of pigs. The objective of the present study was to identify early life risk factors connected to tail damage in non-docked pigs in a commercial Danish piggery, and to further compare the effects of cumulative cross-life experience throughout the early rearing. In an observational study, 741 piglets from 51 sows born in six batches were individually marked at birth and followed until nine weeks of age. Litter related variables and individual piglet characteristics were collected during lactation. The pigs' performance parameters were recorded from birth to nine weeks of age. The association between putative risk factors and tail damage assessed at different stages during lactation and rearing was analysed using multinomial mixed regression models. Prior to weaning, the odds of having tail damage were higher for piglets originating from litters with a high birth weight variation (P = 0.012) and for piglets that were heavier at weaning (P < 0.001). Piglets born to an aggressive sow had 2.7-fold increased odds of having tail damage (P = 0.003), while piglets of sows treated after farrowing had a lower odds (P = 0.015). Post-weaning, the most significant risk factor(s) associated with tail damage was the previous tail status of the pigs. Pigs with bite marks/ scratches in previous assessments had an on average 4-fold and pigs with a tail wound 11-fold increased odds of having tail damage during subsequent assessments. Similarly, pigs with a tail wound pre-weaning had 7-times higher odds of having tail damage at the end of rearing (P = 0.033). Pigs in groups with a higher weight variation (P = 0.030) and pigs with a greater weight gain (P < 0.001) had higher odds of having tail damage at the end of rearing. There was an increased chance of having tail damage post-weaning for piglets that were cross-fostered (P = 0.032) or that had a clinical impairment (P = 0.047) during lactation. Females generally had a lower chance of having tail damage compared to castrated males. Early life risk factors were especially associated with tail damage in pigs pre-weaning. However, the results of this study suggest that early life risk factors are secondary to the previous tail status of pigs as risk factors for later tail damage.

Cats and dogs: Best friends or deadly enemies? What the owners of cats and dogs living in the same household think about their relationship with people and other pets

Although popular culture describes them as mortal enemies, more and more often, dogs and cats live under the same roof. Does this make them best friends? Can sharing the same social and physical environment make them similar? This study compares the approaches of dogs and cats living in the same household have towards humans and other pets as perceived by the owner. Questionnaires collected from 1270 people owning both dog(s) and cat(s) were analysed. Most dogs and cats living together are playful with familiar humans (76.2%) but dogs have a more sociable approach towards strangers and conspecifics than cats (P<0.001). Moreover, the percentage of dogs that have a playful relationship with the owner (84.0%) was higher than cats (49.2%; P<0.001). Dogs and cats living together eat in different places and show different mutual interactions: more dogs lick the cat (42.8%) and more cats ignore the dog (41.8%) than vice versa (P<0.001). However, most dogs and cats sleep at least occasionally (68.5%) and play together (62.4%; P<0.001). Although some body postures, such as the tail’s position, are interpreted differently by the two species, the greater proportions of dogs and cats show a relaxed response to several kinds of approaches of their roommate. Our questionnaire confirms the common beliefs about the sociability of the dog and the privacy of the cat, but this does not result in continuous internal struggles. Most cohabitations are peaceful. Moreover, it is true that they speak different languages, but they seem to understand each other well and interpret each other's approaches in the right way. Thus, aspiring owners should not blindly believe popular assumptions, but both knowledge and respect for species-specific pet behaviours are essential to establish a balance in the household.

Behavior test for seven-week old puppies (Canis familiaris): Inter-rater reliability and factors associated with test performance

Behavioral development in domestic dogs has been investigated for predicting suitability for service dog work or for matching with the "right" families as well as for identifying predispositions to behavioral problems. Findings from the scientific literature seem to confirm that conducting behavioral tests at 7 weeks of age is too early to reliably predict the temperament and personality of a dog. However, this period for domestic dogs is sensitive for early life learning and conditions during this time could have important consequences in adulthood. The aims of this study were to evaluate inter-rater reliability of a simple standardized test and to investigate which factors influence the behavioral reaction of puppies. 105 seven-week old puppies were exposed to five subtests: social attraction, following, retrieving, sudden appearance, noise. During each task, the behaviour of each pup was scored on a 3-5 point scale that reflected the suitability of the pup's reaction to the task. Scores were evaluated for a single subtest and for two aggregate indicators (i.e. response to a person: social attraction subtest and following subtest and response to object and noise: retrieving subtest, sudden appearance subtest and noise subtest). Three assessors independently scored the dogs' reactions for each task. Inter-rater reliability of the three assessors were analyzed with Fleiss' Kappa and Kendall's coefficient, which showed a high inter-rater reliability in 4 of 5 tasks. The ordered logistic regression was carried out to obtain a proportional odds model that was used to model the relationship between sex, litter size, stimulating environment, parity of mother, adequate maternal behavior and high scores. Litter size and maternal parity were associated with test performance in response to a person. The variance of effect of litter was high in response to object and noise. Taken together, our results suggest that using this scoring system there is sufficient inter-rater reliability in the test and litter size and mother experience influences task performances related to dog-human interaction.

The View of the French Dog Breeders in Relation to Female Reproduction, Maternal Care and Stress during the Peripartum Period

In France, as in many other western countries, dogs are an important part of the society as pets or working animals. The exact demand for puppies in France is unknown, as is the proportion of dogs coming from different breeding sources. Nevertheless, the origin of puppies is important since young dogs from puppy mills and pet stores appear to be more likely to develop behavioral disorders. Puppies coming from responsible breeders, on the other hand, tend to be better adapted. In well-managed kennels, an explanation for these behavioral differences may be associated with greater contact of litters with the dam and humans. Another factor that might influence a dog's temperament and character is maternal behavior. Although recent studies have shown that the quality of maternal care in dogs is important, direct effects on the development of behavioral problems such as fearfulness or noise sensitivity are still controversial. To better understand the view of breeders, due to an increased interest in maternal care of dogs, an online questionnaire was developed to assess the dog breeders' profiles and to explore their perception of normal maternal and stress-related behaviors during the peripartum period. In addition, the management of the female during this critical time was queried. Three-hundred and forty-five French dog breeders, representing 91 breeds, completed the online survey. Considering the demographics of the responders, breeding activity in France is mostly family-based with 76% raising two breeds of dogs that produce, on average, five litters/year. Around 60% of the breeders use progesterone levels to determine breeding date. The whelping date is estimated using multiple criteria and most labors and deliveries happen under human supervision. The majority of behaviors associated to good maternal care are defined by the vast majority as being related to more attention of the bitch towards the puppies with the frequency of nursing and licking being important clues. Globally, the peripartum is perceived as a stressful period and to minimize stress and reassure the bitch the favored method used is increasing human presence. Problems related to maternal behavior were described, notably with primiparous bitches.

Influence of dog-appeasing pheromone on canine maternal behaviour during the peripartum and neonatal periods

Background

Parturition and the initial postpartum period are important moments in the reproductive cycle of dogs.

Methods

A study assessed the effect of ADAPTIL, a dog-appeasing pheromone, on maternal behaviour during peripartum. Bitches were continuously exposed to ADAPTIL (n=20) or placebo (n=21) in double-blinded conditions from an average of about seven days before parturition up to 21 days postpartum. Differences in maternal behaviour in relation to the treatment were evaluated by the observation of specific activities through video recordings, such as the time spent by the bitch in close contact with the puppies, oronasal interaction and nursing duration and position. Videos were recorded at four time points (W0: within the first 48 hours of whelping; W1: one week after parturition; W2: two weeks after parturition; and W3: three weeks after parturition). In addition, the perception of breeders in relation to the quality of maternal care, puppies’ wellbeing and overall relationship between the bitches and the puppies was evaluated using Visual Analogue Scale at the same time points. Moreover, the daily activity of the bitches was measured by using an electronic device (FitBark dog activity trackers, Kansas City, Missouri).

Results

For all observed maternal behaviours, there was a steady decrease in levels as the puppies developed, independently of treatment. However, bitches exposed to ADAPTIL tended to nurse significantly more in lying position, while those exposed to the placebo nursed more in a seated position, especially at W1 (P=0.06) and W3 (P=0.005). According to the breeders, the attention scores of bitches towards puppies were significantly higher in ADAPTIL than in the placebo group at each time point (P=0.01). Moreover, a difference according to parity was observed (P=0.004), with greater attention score displayed by primiparous bitches exposed to ADAPTIL compared with placebo on W0 (P=0.02), W1 and W3 (P<0.001). The global mother–puppies relationship was also perceived as significantly better (P=0.0002) by breeders of bitches exposed to ADAPTIL, with significant differences at W2 (P=0.01) and W3 (P=0.001). The bitches’ daily activity increased starting two days before the whelp, peaked during parturition and then gradually declined up until four days postpartum. There was a trend towards a difference in the activity level according to the treatment during the full study period (P=0.09) and at two days before parturition (P=0.07). Bitches exposed to ADAPTIL were more active compared with placebo in relation to the FitBark data.

Conclusion

The use of ADAPTIL in maternity modulated maternal behaviours. Concerning the caregiver’s view, bitches under the influence of ADAPTIL had greater and extended attention towards the puppies and they were eager to stay with the puppies for a longer time.

A review of maternal behaviour in dogs and potential areas for further research

Here we review information on maternal behaviour in dogs, defined as a combination of all the acts of the mother towards her offspring, which begins before parturition and continues until weaning. In dogs, maternal care is measured using the most commonly observed behaviours, such as the time spent in contact, licking/grooming and nursing of the puppies. Since newborn puppies have a very limited capacity for movement, maternal interaction is essential to their survival, nourishment and protection. It is also an important element of the bonding process between puppies and the bitch and is thought to play a role in the social development of the puppies. Nevertheless, some questions still need to be clarified, such as the best way to quantify factors that may interfere with maternal behaviour. In recent studies, maternal care, or maternal style, was measured using a scoring system and found to be influenced by factors such as litter size, breed and parity, or even human interaction. However, the impact of the emotional state of the bitch and the quality of maternal behaviour on puppy survival and development remain unclear. The long-lasting effects of mother-puppy interactions on puppy behaviour during their adult life are still poorly understood, despite their importance for breeders who wish to prevent future problem behaviours.

Forgotten, But Not Lost-Alloparental Behavior and Pup-Adult Interactions in Companion Dogs

Socialization with humans is known to be a pivotal factor in the development of appropriate adult dog behavior, but the role and extent of dog-dog interactions in the first two months of life is rarely studied. Although various forms of alloparental behaviors are described in the case of wild-living canids, the social network of companion dogs around home-raised puppies is almost unknown. An international online survey of companion dog breeders was conducted, asking about the interactions of other dogs in the household with the puppies and the pups' mother. Based on the observations of these breeders, our study showed an intricate network of interactions among adult dogs and puppies below the age of weaning. Alloparental behaviors (including suckling and feeding by regurgitation) were reportedly common. Independent of their sex, other household dogs mostly behaved in an amicable way with the puppies, and in the case of unseparated housing, the puppies reacted with lower fear to the barks of the others. Parousness, sexual status, and age of the adult dogs had an association with how interested the dogs were in interacting with the puppies, and also with how the mother reacted to the other dogs. Our study highlights the possible importance of dog-dog interactions during the early life of puppies in forming stable and low-stress interactions with other dogs later in life.

Maternal behaviour in domestic dogs

Mammalian parental care, in most of the cases, is given by the female, who provides food, warmth, and protection. In domestic dogs, maternal behaviour shown by the dam mainly consists of contact, nursing, grooming/licking, play, punishment, thermoregulation, and motion. Peer-reviewed literature published between 1952 and 2018 was retrieved from CAB Abstracts, PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge, Scopus and book chapters. Keywords for this search included the following terms: behaviour, bonding, altricial, precocial, offspring, maternal, whelping, nursing, domestic dogs, female dog, aggression, puppies, anogenital licking. In this review, we reported and discussed scientific information about maternal behaviour in domestic bitches, comparing altricial vs precocial species; the importance of the bonding, grooming/licking and nursing, and their impacts on puppies' behaviour; altered maternal behaviours such as aggression, cannibalism, rejection, and also the relation between hormones and maternal care behaviours. We concluded that the level of interactions between the dam and the puppies influences the physiological, cognitive and behavioural development of the litter, and the main hormones in the bitch for inducing maternal care behaviours are estradiol, oxytocin, prolactin and progesterone.

Personality Research in Mammalian Farm Animals: Concepts, Measures, and Relationship to Welfare

Measuring and understanding personality in animals is a rising scientific field. Much research has been conducted to assess distinctive individual differences in behavior in a large number of species in the past few decades, and increasing numbers of studies include farm animals. Nevertheless, the terminology and definitions used in this broad scientific field are often confusing because different concepts and methods are used to explain often synonymously applied terms, such as personality, temperament and coping style. In the present review we give a comprehensive overview of the concepts and terms currently used in animal personality research and critically reveal how they are defined and what they measure. First, we shortly introduce concepts describing human personality and how these concepts are used to explain animal personality. Second, we present which concepts, methods and measures are applied in farm animal personality research and show that the terminology used seems to be somehow species-related. Finally, we discuss some findings on the possible impact of personality on the welfare of farm animals. The assessment of personality in farm animals is of growing scientific and practical interest. Differences in theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches may also entail the diverse use of the different concepts between basic and applied research approaches. We conclude that more consistency is needed in using different theoretical concepts, terms and measures, especially in farm animal personality research. The terms coping style and temperament, which are used in different ways, should not be examined as independent concepts, but rather should be considered as different aspects of the whole personality concept. Farm animal personality should be increasingly considered for the improvement of animal housing, management, breeding and welfare.

My Dog Is Not My Cat: Owner Perception of the Personalities of Dogs and Cats Living in the Same Household

Simple Summary

A growing number of dogs and cats live together, sharing both a common home and common owner. Nevertheless, how do owners of both cats and dogs living in the same household perceive their pets’ personalities? We tried to answer this question by using a questionnaire targeted at people who owned both dogs and cats. Sociability, protectiveness, reactivity, neuroticism, and fearfulness were the traits that emerged and that diversified themselves according to species. Moreover, intrinsic animal factors, such as age and gender, demographic characteristics of the owner, and environmental context seem to modulate the perceived personality traits in a species-specific way. As personality might influence pets’ welfare and adaptability to the home environment, owners of multiple pets should know and take into consideration both common and differential aspects of their pet’s personality to optimise cohabitation among dogs and cats.

Abstract

This study aims to define the personality traits perceived by the owners of multiple pets and to evaluate how they are modulated by experiential-environmental factors. A questionnaire was administered to 1270 owners of multiple pets (dogs and cats) to collect data on the demographics, management, and personality of their pets. Data were analysed by principal component analysis, bivariate, and multivariable models. Five personality traits emerged in dogs and cats: sociability, reactivity, protectiveness, neuroticism, and fearfulness. The owners perceived differences in the personality of their pet: dogs scored higher in sociability, protectiveness, and reactivity, while lower in the neuroticism dimension compared with cats (p < 0.001). Age similarly affected sociability (p < 0.01), and reactivity (p < 0.001) in both dogs and cats, while species-specific gender differences were found as to fearfulness (p < 0.05) and neuroticism (p < 0.001). The age of acquisition modulated several traits in dog personality, while living with conspecifics especially influenced cats. Physiological, behavioural, and evolutionary characteristics could explain species differences. Moreover, intrinsic and extrinsic factors modulated the five dimensions of dogs and cats in a diversified fashion, suggesting complex interactions between species and the environment. However, owners could have had different attitudes with their animals which could have influenced personality perception.

Maternal care affects chicks' development differently according to sex in quail

Maternal behavior is known to influence the behavioral development of young. Recently, it was demonstrated that maternal behavior also differed according to sex of chicks and brood sex composition. So, here, we explored if these factors influenced behavioral development of quail chicks when they were brooded, and what characteristics of chicks and foster females could best explain this development. We studied three sets of chick pairs brooded by foster females: unisex male, unisex female, and mixed broods. We found that both emotivity profile and sociality depended on the sex: females were more reactive and less social than males. Females' emotivity profile was correlated with brood composition and foster female activity during maternal care. In males, only sociality was correlated with foster females' scores of aggressive rejection. Our results evidence that male and female chicks respond differentially to maternal behavior. This is discussed in terms of ecological and physiological constraints on development according to sex.

The importance of early life experiences for the development of behavioural disorders in domestic dogs

Behavioural disorders are a major reason for euthanasia and sheltering of pet dogs. The prevention and treatment of behavioural disorders requires a better understanding of the underlying causes. Early life experiences, such as maternal care, attachment and socialisation, have long lasting and serious consequences for the behavioural and physiological development of an individual. The complex interplay between these factors is likely to have consequences for the future dog-owner bond and the vulnerability to develop behavioural disorders. Here, we summarise the current literature on the interactions between maternal care, attachment formation, and the sensitive socialisation period and their potential consequences on adult dog behaviour. Based on the findings we highlight gaps in knowledge and provide suggestions for future research which are necessary to formulate recommendations for pet dog breeding and socialisation.

Influence of Maternal Care on Behavioural Development of Domestic Dogs (Canis Familiaris) Living in a Home Environment

Simple Summary

Maternal care in dogs and its impact on the behavioural development of puppies has become the subject of growing research interest. In order to determine the effects of maternal care on the behaviour of family dog puppies, maternal care during the first three weeks after birth was observed in 12 litters of puppies reared in a home environment (72 puppies). The behavioural responses of the puppies were assessed at two months of age, in an arena and an isolation test. In both tests, the amount of maternal care was found to be positively associated with some stress behaviours and, in the arena test, also with the puppies’ interest in an unfamiliar person who was present during the test. These behaviours are similar to those observed during the separation of other young mammals from an attachment figure with which they have a high quality of bond. Amount of maternal care was also found to be negatively associated with exploration and play. The difference in results between the present study and our previous study involving laboratory dogs reared in relative social isolation suggests that the developmental trajectory of puppies is influenced by a combination of maternal behaviour and social and physical environmental enrichment.

Abstract

Maternal care has been shown to affect the development of the brain, behaviour, social skills and emotional systems of the young of many mammalian species including dogs. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of maternal care on the behavioural responses of family dog puppies towards environmental and social stimuli. In order to do this, maternal care (licking puppy’s ano-genital area, licking the puppy, nursing and mother-puppy contact) during the first three weeks after birth was assessed in 12 litters of domestic dog puppies reared in home environments (total = 72 puppies). The behavioural responses of puppies were assessed in an arena and an isolation test, which were performed when the puppies were two-month old. Data were analysed using principal components analysis and projection to latent structures regression. A systematic relationship was found between maternal care and behaviour in both tests. In the arena test, maternal care was found to be positively associated with approach to the stranger, attention oriented to the stranger, time spent near the enclosure, yawning, whining and yelping (R²Y = 0.613, p = 8.2 × 10⁻⁹). Amount of maternal care was negatively associated with the number of squares crossed and the time spent individually playing with the rope. In the isolation test, the amount of maternal care was positively associated with standing posture, paw lifting, and howling, and it was negatively associated with yawning, lying down and nose licking (R²Y = 0.507, p = 0.000626). These results suggest that the amount of maternal care received during early life influences the pattern of behavioural responses and coping strategies of puppies at two-months of age. On the basis of these findings it could be speculated that early maternal care contributes to adaption to the environment in which family puppies are developing, with particular regard to social relationships with people.

IRF2BP2-deficient microglia block the anxiolytic effect of enhanced postnatal care

Enhanced postnatal care (EPC) increases resilience to adversity in adulthood. Since microglia participate in shaping neural circuits, we asked how ablation of an inflammation-suppressing factor IRF2BP2 (Interferon Regulatory Factor 2 Binding Protein 2) in microglia would affect the responses to EPC. Mice lacking IRF2BP2 in microglia (KO) and littermate controls (WT) were subjected to EPC during the first 3 weeks after birth. EPC reduced anxiety in WT but not KO mice. This was associated with reduced inflammatory cytokine expression in the hypothalamus. Whole genome RNAseq profiling of the hypothalamus identified 101 genes whose expression was altered by EPC: 95 in WT, 11 in KO, with 5 in common that changed in opposite directions. Proteoglycan 4 (Prg4), prostaglandin D2 synthase (Ptgds) and extracellular matrix protease inhibitor Itih2 were suppressed by EPC in WT but elevated in KO mice. On the other hand, the glutamate transporter VGLUT1 (Slc17a7) was increased by EPC in WT but not KO mice. Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) is known to enhance microglial inflammation and promote Gfap expression. ELISA confirmed reduced PGD2 in the hypothalamus of WT mice after EPC, associated with reduced Gfap expression. Our study suggests that the anxiety-reducing effect of EPC operates by suppressing microglial inflammation, likely by reducing neuronal prostaglandin D2 production.

Effects of maternal investment, temperament, and cognition on guide dog success

A continuing debate in studies of social development in both humans and other animals is the extent to which early life experiences affect adult behavior. Also unclear are the relative contributions of cognitive skills ("intelligence") and temperament for successful outcomes. Guide dogs are particularly suited to research on these questions. To succeed as a guide dog, individuals must accomplish complex navigation and decision making without succumbing to distractions and unforeseen obstacles. Faced with these rigorous demands, only ∼70% of dogs that enter training ultimately achieve success. What predicts success as a guide dog? To address these questions, we followed 98 puppies from birth to adulthood. We found that high levels of overall maternal behavior were linked with a higher likelihood of program failure. Furthermore, mothers whose nursing style required greater effort by puppies were more likely to produce successful offspring, whereas mothers whose nursing style required less effort were more likely to produce offspring that failed. In young adults, an inability to solve a multistep task quickly, compounded with high levels of perseveration during the task, was associated with failure. Young adults that were released from the program also appeared more anxious, as indicated by a short latency to vocalize when faced with a novel object task. Our results suggest that both maternal nursing behavior and individual traits of cognition and temperament are associated with guide dog success.

Development of the "Highly Sensitive Dog" questionnaire to evaluate the personality dimension "Sensory Processing Sensitivity" in dogs

In humans, the personality dimension 'sensory processing sensitivity (SPS)', also referred to as "high sensitivity", involves deeper processing of sensory information, which can be associated with physiological and behavioral overarousal. However, it has not been studied up to now whether this dimension also exists in other species. SPS can influence how people perceive the environment and how this affects them, thus a similar dimension in animals would be highly relevant with respect to animal welfare. We therefore explored whether SPS translates to dogs, one of the primary model species in personality research. A 32-item questionnaire to assess the "highly sensitive dog score" (HSD-s) was developed based on the "highly sensitive person" (HSP) questionnaire. A large-scale, international online survey was conducted, including the HSD questionnaire, as well as questions on fearfulness, neuroticism, "demographic" (e.g. dog sex, age, weight; age at adoption, etc.) and "human" factors (e.g. owner age, sex, profession, communication style, etc.), and the HSP questionnaire. Data were analyzed using linear mixed effect models with forward stepwise selection to test prediction of HSD-s by the above-mentioned factors, with country of residence and dog breed treated as random effects. A total of 3647 questionnaires were fully completed. HSD-, fearfulness, neuroticism and HSP-scores showed good internal consistencies, and HSD-s only moderately correlated with fearfulness and neuroticism scores, paralleling previous findings in humans. Intra- (N = 447) and inter-rater (N = 120) reliabilities were good. Demographic and human factors, including HSP score, explained only a small amount of the variance of HSD-s. A PCA analysis identified three subtraits of SPS, comparable to human findings. Overall, the measured personality dimension in dogs showed good internal consistency, partial independence from fearfulness and neuroticism, and good intra- and inter-rater reliability, indicating good construct validity of the HSD questionnaire. Human and demographic factors only marginally affected the HSD-s suggesting that, as hypothesized for human SPS, a genetic basis may underlie this dimension within the dog species.

Breed, sex, and litter effects in 2-month old puppies' behaviour in a standardised open-field test

A considerable number of studies have reported differences among dog breeds with respect to their genetic profile, cognitive abilities or personality traits. Each dog breed is normally treated as a homogeneous group, however, researchers have recently questioned whether the behavioural profile of modern breeds still reflects their historical function or if the intense divergent selective pressures and geographical barriers have created a more fragmented picture. The majority of studies attempting to assess and compare modern breeds’ personality focused on the evaluation of adult dogs where the potential effects of environmental/human factors on the dogs’ behaviour are hard to discern from their genetic heritage. In the following study, we aimed at investigating between- and within-breed differences in the personality of two-months-old puppies by direct behavioural observation of 377 puppies from 12 breeds. Results showed that there was no effect of sex, however both breed and litter, significantly affected all personality traits. Breed on average explained 10% of the variance, whereas the effect of litter was noticeably higher, explaining on average 23% of the variance. Taken together, our results suggest that breed does have some influence on personality traits, but they also highlight the importance of taking litter effects into account.

Sampling maternal care behaviour in domestic dogs: What's the best approach?

Our understanding of the frequency and duration of maternal care behaviours in the domestic dog during the first two postnatal weeks is limited, largely due to the inconsistencies in the sampling methodologies that have been employed. In order to develop a more concise picture of maternal care behaviour during this period, and to help establish the sampling method that represents these behaviours best, we compared a variety of time sampling methods Six litters were continuously observed for a total of 96h over postnatal days 3, 6, 9 and 12 (24h per day). Frequent (dam presence, nursing duration, contact duration) and infrequent maternal behaviours (anogenital licking duration and frequency) were coded using five different time sampling methods that included: 12-h night (1800-0600h), 12-h day (0600-1800h), one hour period during the night (1800-0600h), one hour period during the day (0600-1800h) and a one hour period anytime. Each of the one hour time sampling method consisted of four randomly chosen 15-min periods. Two random sets of four 15-min period were also analysed to ensure reliability. We then determined which of the time sampling methods averaged over the three 24-h periods best represented the frequency and duration of behaviours. As might be expected, frequently occurring behaviours were adequately represented by short (oneh) sampling periods, however this was not the case with the infrequent behaviour. Thus, we argue that the time sampling methodology employed must match the behaviour of interest. This caution applies to maternal behaviour in altricial species, such as canids, as well as all systematic behavioural observations utilising time sampling methodology.

Characterizing Early Maternal Style in a Population of Guide Dogs

In both humans and non-humans, differences in maternal style during the first few weeks of life can be reliably characterized, and these differences affect offspring's temperament and cognition in later life. Drawing on the breeding population of dogs at The Seeing Eye, a guide dog school in Morristown, New Jersey, we conducted videotaped focal follows on 21 mothers and their litters (n = 138 puppies) over the first 3 weeks of the puppies' lives in an effort to characterize maternal style. We found that a mother's attitude and actions toward her offspring varied naturally between individuals, and that these variations could be summarized by a single principal component, which we described as Maternal behavior. This component was stable across weeks, associated with breed, litter size, and parity, but not redundant with these attributes. Furthermore, this component was significantly associated with an independent experimental measure of maternal behavior, and with maternal stress as measured by salivary cortisol. In summary, Maternal behavior captured a significant proportion of the variation in maternal style; was stable over time; and had both discriminant and predictive validity.

Selection of Breeding Stock among Australian Purebred Dog Breeders, with Particular Emphasis on the Dam

Every year, thousands of purebred domestic dogs are bred by registered dog breeders. Yet, little is known about the rearing environment of these dogs, or the attitudes and priorities surrounding breeding practices of these dog breeders. The objective of this study was to explore some of the factors that dog breeders consider important for stock selection, with a particular emphasis on issues relating to the dam. Two-hundred and seventy-four Australian purebred dog breeders, covering 91 breeds across all Australian National Kennel Club breed groups, completed an online survey relating to breeding practices. Most breeders surveyed (76%) reported specialising in one breed of dog, the median number of dogs and bitches per breeder was two and three respectively, and most breeders bred two litters or less a year. We identified four components, relating to the dam, that were considered important to breeders. These were defined as Maternal Care, Offspring Potential, Dam Temperament, and Dam Genetics and Health. Overall, differences were observed in attitudes and beliefs across these components, showing that there is variation according to breed/breed groups. In particular, the importance of Maternal Care varied according to dog breed group. Breeders of brachycephalic breeds tended to differ the most in relation to Offspring Potential and Dam Genetics and Health. The number of breeding dogs/bitches influenced breeding priority, especially in relation to Dam Temperament, however no effect was found relating to the number of puppies bred each year. Only 24% of breeders used their own sire for breeding. The finding that some breeders did not test for diseases relevant to their breed, such as hip dysplasia in Labrador Retrievers and German Shepherds, provides important information on the need to educate some breeders, and also buyers of purebred puppies, that screening for significant diseases should occur. Further research into the selection of breeding dams and sires will inform future strategies to improve the health and behaviour of our best friend.

The Genetics of How Dogs Became Our Social Allies

Dogs were domesticated from wolves about 15,000 years ago, and an important selection pressure (intentional or unintentional) has been their ability to communicate and cooperate with people. They show extensive human-directed sociability, which varies within as well as between breeds and is not shared by ancestral wolves. Hence, dogs are potentially ideal models for studying the genetics of social behavior. Here, we review some recent research carried out by us and others on this subject. We present results showing that recent selection of different breed types can be used as a model system for investigating the genetic architecture of personalities. Furthermore, we review data showing that human-directed social behavior is significantly related to a small number of genes that have known connections to human social disorders such as autism and schizophrenia. We suggest that dogs are excellent study subjects for analyzing the evolution and genetics of social behavior and can serve as probes for human health and welfare.